About The Institute
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INSTITUTE
The Chartered Institute of Taxation of Nigeria started on February 4, 1982 as Association of Tax Administrators and Practitioners. Thereafter, it transformed into Nigeria Institute of Taxation, which was formally launched on February 21, 1982 and statutorily recognized on May 6, 1987 as company Limited by Guarantee.
The Institute was chartered by the Federal Government of Nigeria by the enabling Act No. 76 of 1992 (now CITN Act, CAP C10, Vol. 2, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004) and was charged with the responsibility, among others, of determining what standards of knowledge and skills are to be attained by persons seeking to become a professional Tax Practitioner or Administrator.
About The Institute
COUNCIL AND ITS OFFICERS
Council is the governing body of the Institute. It is headed by the President who is its Chairman. The Vice-President is the Vice-Chairman. Section 3 of the Act sets out the rules governing the election, composition and terms of office of Council members as follows:
•A Chairman who shall be the President of the Institute;
•A Vice-Chairman who shall be the Vice-President.
•The Chairman of the Federal Inland Revenue Service or his representative not below the rank of a Director;
•Two representatives of the Joint Tax Board.
•Fifteen persons elected by members of the Institute.
•A representative each of the following Ministries: Finance and Economic Development and Education
•Two persons to represent institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. The two shall not come from the same Institution.
A member of Council shall hold office for a period of three years after which he retires and thereafter be eligible for re-election. Election to Council is held annually at the Annual General Meeting and is by secret ballot. The rules governing this election are contained on pages 6 to 8 of the Membership Rules and Regulations. The Act gives Council absolute powers to do anything, which, in its opinion, is necessary to carry out the activities of the Institute.
COUNCIL MEMBERS
John Femi Sunday Jegede FCTI - President
Mark Anthony Chidolue Dike FCTI - Vice President
Teju Somorin (Dr.) Mrs FCTI - Deputy Vice President
Adesina Adedayo FCTI - Honorary Treasurer
EXCO Members Other Members
J.F.S Jegede FCTI
M.A.C Dike FCTI
Teju Somorin (Dr.) Mrs FCTI
Adesina Adedayo FCTI
R. A. Quadri (Prince) IPP FCTI
G.O. Simplice (Ms.) FCTI
A. O. Otitoju (Chief), FCTI
G.A. Da - Silva (Barr.) FCTI
C. I. Ede (Chief), FCTI
O.A Sanni FCTI
A. A. Adeola, FCTI
Mikailu Aminu (Prof.) ACTI
R. A Olumegbon FCTI
G. E. Olotu (Mrs), FCTI
H. O. A. Taiwo, FCTI
Dankwanbo Ibrahim (Alh.) FCTI
A. M. Gwaram, FCTI
Chukwuemeka Eze (Barr.) ACTI
Adenike Disu (Mrs.) FCTI
A. A. Bello, ACTI
E. Ebilah (Mrs), FCTI
D. A. Bako (Brig Gen), FCTI
GOVERNMENT NOMINEES B. A. Abdullahi, FCTI Representing Joint Tax Board (JTB)
M. A. Mainoma (Prof), FCTI Representing Nigeria University Commission (NUC)
B. C. Chinegwu (Mrs.) Federal Ministry Of Education
I. Zakariyau FCTI Representing Joint Tax Board (JTB)
PAST PRESIDENTS
David A. Olorunleke, FCTI - 1983 - 1995
James K. Naiyeju, FCTI - 1995 - 1997
Jacob B. Okele, FCTI - 1997 - 1999
Titus O. Aiyewumi, FCTI - 1999 - 2001
Adebimpe A. Balogun, (Mrs) FCTI - 2001 - 2003
Emmanuel N. Osemene, (Late) FCTI - 2003 - 2005
G. Foluso Fasoto FCTI - 2005 - 2007
K.A Adigun FCTI - 2007 - 2009
Prince R. Kunle Quadri (IPP) FCTI - 2009 - 2011
LEGAL ADVISERS Kayode Sofola ACTI,SAN
Abiola Sanni Ph.D FCTI
THE SECRETARIAT OF THE INSTITUTE
Council serves as the governing body for the Institute’s affairs in formulating policies for the Secretariat to implement. In ensuring an effective administration of the Secretariat, the Registrar/Chief Executive who also serves as the Secretary of Council heads the Secretariat.
The Registrar/CE, through the Heads of Departments (Assistant Directors), administers the various activities of the Institute. These Assistant Directors also serve as the Secretary to Committees of Council. The Secretaries/ Assistant Directors are responsible to the Registrar/Chief Executive in carrying out their responsibilities. Enquiries about issues relating to the Institute could be obtained from the Assistant Directors associated with tasks to which such enquiries are needed.
The Institute’s Secretariat is situated at Don De Dieu Plaza, 11, Ikorodu Road, Opposite CPI-Moore, Maryland, Lagos. The Secretariat is structured in line with the objectives of the Institute in order to meet the various needs of the society i.e. members or non-members. This is as stated below:
REGISTRAR’S OFFICE
Registrar/Chief Executive - Mr Jayeoba Abayomi FCTI.
Secretary/Personal Assistant - Mr. Olaolu Apara
Clerical Assistant - Mrs. Damilola Bello
FINANCE & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Asst. Director, Finance - Mr. Kasali Abimbola ACTI.
Asst. Manager, Finance - Mr. Lanre OLasunkanmi ACTI.
Account, Officer - Mr. Olukayode Olaniyi
Account, Officer - Mr. Williams Adebowale
ICT Officer - Mr. Nasir Adegbenga
ICT Supervisor - Mr. Ayoola Olugbenga
Accounts Clerk - Mr. Olayinka Shobande
ADMINISTRATION & CORPORATE SERVICES DEPARTMENT
Asst. Director, Admin & Corporate - Mr. Gbolahan Bilewu
Manager, Administration - Mrs. Yetunde Sulaiman
Asst. Manager, Administration - Mrs. Patricia Abu
Procotol/PA to the President - Mr. Monday Akonafua
Officer, Receptionist - Miss. Christy Waife
Supervisor, Dispatch - Mr. Abel Idise
Senior Driver - Mr. Ojo David
Secretary/Deskptop Publisher - Mrs. Charles Olawumi
Clerical Assistant - Miss. Christy Omadime
Clerical Assistant - Mrs. Kemi Adeleke
Assistant Supervisor Depatch - Mr. Friday Agboma
Driver/Despatch Rider - Mr. Clinton Udenewa
Driver (President) - Mr. Momoh Yusuf
Driver - Mr. Ayinla Semiu
Driver (Registrar) - Mr. Ojo Ayodeji
Driver (Ass Director, Finance) - Mr. Olalekan Bello
Driver (Ass Director, Membership/Exam) - Mr. Adekola Niyi
Driver (Ass Director, Education/Technical) - Mr. Olaitan Kalejaiye
Protocol/Clerical Officer - Mr. Imeh Nkanga
EDUCATION/RESEARCH & TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
Asst. Director, Edu./Research & Tech. - Mr. Godwin E. Oyedokun ACTI, ACA, CFA
Manager, Research/Tecnical - Mrs. Afolake Oso ACTI
Asst. Manager, Education - Mrs. Elizabeth Adebanjo
Asst. Manager, Education - Mr. Sunkanmi Oshungboye
Senior Clerk, Research & Technical - Mr. Ayodeji Adeyemi
Clerk - Miss. Omolara Ajasa
EXAMINATION & MEMBERSHIP DEPARTMENT
Asst. Director, Exams & Membership - Mr. Awogbade Adefisayo ACTI
Manager, Membership - Mrs. Risikat Ojo
Officer, Exam/Student Affairs - Mr. Adeyina Adebayo
Officer, Membership - Miss. Ashiru Motunrayo
Officer, Membership - Mr. Robert Aigbodion
Officer, Exam/Student Affairs - Mr. 'Wale Odunmbaku
Officer, Exam/Student Affairs - Mrs. Kemi Oluwagbami
Supervisor, Membership - Mrs. Adeola Oyefeso
ABUJA LIAISON OFFICE
Manager, Abuja Liaison Office - Mr. Abubakar Auwal
Officer, Abuja Office - Mr. Awoyeriju Kola
Clerk - Miss Alufe Nkem
Friday, May 22, 2009
Sunday, May 3, 2009
Tips for CISA / CISM exam registrants
Dear CISA / CISM exam registrants,
Very often there are messages posted on different CISA / CISM groups by various people asking for guidance and tips for preparing for the CISA / CISM exam.
I would like to provide some inputs for the CISA / CISM exam.
Note: The views expressed here are my personal views and not necessarily those of any organization or association, I am working or worked for or associated with. The points are based on my personal experience and you would need to tailor them as per your work experience, educational background and suitability. Every individual is different and would need to have a self designed plan for the exam. The following points would be helpful in designing that plan and preparing for the exam.
APPROACH: For CISA exam the approach should be necessarily that of an auditor and for CISM that of manager. The last alphabets ‘A’ and ‘M’ are important. We may try to relate the questions in exam with our work experience and sometimes might think in a different way than actually required. Example – We might be doing certain things in our company as per the practices followed there but that may not be the MOST appropriate way from auditors / managers point of view
BASIC EXAM MATERIAL: I referred to 2 basic study materials – the CRM and the Question bank by ISACA.
CRM – HOW MANY TIMES YOU NEED TO READ IT: I think reading it once thoroughly and then again for weak areas or revision should be sufficient. If a person is good at one reading and grasping everything in first effort then that would suffice. In short read it to understand and not for the sake of reading. If you read a topic once and don’t understand then try reading again and still if you don’t understand look for other reference materials. Reference material other than
CRM should be used as reference if required for clarification and cannot substitute the CRM. There are many good books in the market but from the exam point of view they may not be required for thorough reading in entirety. Referring them only if required for specific topic would be a good idea.
TOO MUCH TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE MAY NOT BE REQUIRED: Don’t get in to too much of technical stuff and detailed technicalities. One must know the basics though and have the concepts clear.
REGULAR STUDY AND STUDY PLAN: For me a regular study of 1-2 hours daily for 2 months before the exam and for 10-12 hours a week before the exam helped me a lot. Remember this is not a kind of exam that you can wait for last week when you would take a leave from office for study. I suggest one must go through the CRM domains and sub topics and ISACA question bank at a very initial stage, get a feel of the preparation required and identify the strengths and weakness and then prepare a schedule accordingly. You might need to sacrifice some of your time from your routine activities.
TRY SOLVING MAXIMUM NUMBER OF QUESTIONS: Answering maximum number of questions from ISACA question bank, particularly in the last week before the exam helped me a lot. It made me go to the exam with right mindset, confidence and maintaining the right speed for answering the questions. Also it helps to identify areas of improvement.
ANALYSE YOUR ANSWERS AND LOGIC: Analyze your answers in detail after going thorough the mock test or Question bank. Know the logic behind the correct answer and check if you are thinking in the same way. For the questions where you could not understand the logic read the
CRM and reference material and have your doubts clarified.
IMPORTANCE OF MOCK TEST OR PRACTICE TESTS: It is experienced that during first 2 hours of the exam the vigor is high and it gradually comes down towards the end of exam. Going through mock tests with a continuous sitting of 4 hours in exam simulated environment helps a lot as you know what it is like sitting for 4 continuous hours and answering those tricky questions.
READ QUESTION COMPLETELY AND CAREFULLY: During the actual exam you may feel that the question you are attempting is the same that you have gone through mock test or question bank. BUT still read the questions carefully and completely along with all the 4 answer options. You would have a question/s where there is slight change in wording and so the answer would be different from your earlier one. Also there may be case where one of the options is slightly changed to make it the MOST appropriate answer than the one you had attempted while going through question bank. From my experience you won’t find a single question repeated as it is from the ISACA question bank. In short don’t jump to the answer but read the question carefully and completely.
MAINTAIN RIGHT SPEED IN THE EXAM: During the exam maintain the speed. Don’t run too fast in haste of completing the exam and don’t lag behind by spending more time than what is required. You have 200 questions and 4 hours. A good approach is to break this into a target of 50-55 questions per hour. After every hour you can check your speed and adjust accordingly. Its good to take a 1-2 min break (just relax on your seat) after each hour and then continue.
11. STUDY CIRCLE, REVIEW COURSE AND STUDY GROUP: Joining the local chapter study circle course, and/or review course and / or forming study group is useful particularly to improve in weak areas. Different people from different educational background and work experience come together and share their views and knowledge which is not only helpful from exam point of view but also helps is networking with people. Another benefit is that you remain in touch with your CRM and domains of study and keeps the pressure for preparing for the exam.
12. SELF BELIEF AND CONFIDENCE: Believe in yourself that you would be able to clear the exam. A regular study, review of your study plan and appropriate action would help you maintain the right direction and also make you feel good, confident and stay focused.
Hope these points would be useful to you in preparing for the exam. Wish you all the best for your exam
Thanks and regards
Sachin Porwal
Very often there are messages posted on different CISA / CISM groups by various people asking for guidance and tips for preparing for the CISA / CISM exam.
I would like to provide some inputs for the CISA / CISM exam.
Note: The views expressed here are my personal views and not necessarily those of any organization or association, I am working or worked for or associated with. The points are based on my personal experience and you would need to tailor them as per your work experience, educational background and suitability. Every individual is different and would need to have a self designed plan for the exam. The following points would be helpful in designing that plan and preparing for the exam.
APPROACH: For CISA exam the approach should be necessarily that of an auditor and for CISM that of manager. The last alphabets ‘A’ and ‘M’ are important. We may try to relate the questions in exam with our work experience and sometimes might think in a different way than actually required. Example – We might be doing certain things in our company as per the practices followed there but that may not be the MOST appropriate way from auditors / managers point of view
BASIC EXAM MATERIAL: I referred to 2 basic study materials – the CRM and the Question bank by ISACA.
CRM – HOW MANY TIMES YOU NEED TO READ IT: I think reading it once thoroughly and then again for weak areas or revision should be sufficient. If a person is good at one reading and grasping everything in first effort then that would suffice. In short read it to understand and not for the sake of reading. If you read a topic once and don’t understand then try reading again and still if you don’t understand look for other reference materials. Reference material other than
CRM should be used as reference if required for clarification and cannot substitute the CRM. There are many good books in the market but from the exam point of view they may not be required for thorough reading in entirety. Referring them only if required for specific topic would be a good idea.
TOO MUCH TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE MAY NOT BE REQUIRED: Don’t get in to too much of technical stuff and detailed technicalities. One must know the basics though and have the concepts clear.
REGULAR STUDY AND STUDY PLAN: For me a regular study of 1-2 hours daily for 2 months before the exam and for 10-12 hours a week before the exam helped me a lot. Remember this is not a kind of exam that you can wait for last week when you would take a leave from office for study. I suggest one must go through the CRM domains and sub topics and ISACA question bank at a very initial stage, get a feel of the preparation required and identify the strengths and weakness and then prepare a schedule accordingly. You might need to sacrifice some of your time from your routine activities.
TRY SOLVING MAXIMUM NUMBER OF QUESTIONS: Answering maximum number of questions from ISACA question bank, particularly in the last week before the exam helped me a lot. It made me go to the exam with right mindset, confidence and maintaining the right speed for answering the questions. Also it helps to identify areas of improvement.
ANALYSE YOUR ANSWERS AND LOGIC: Analyze your answers in detail after going thorough the mock test or Question bank. Know the logic behind the correct answer and check if you are thinking in the same way. For the questions where you could not understand the logic read the
CRM and reference material and have your doubts clarified.
IMPORTANCE OF MOCK TEST OR PRACTICE TESTS: It is experienced that during first 2 hours of the exam the vigor is high and it gradually comes down towards the end of exam. Going through mock tests with a continuous sitting of 4 hours in exam simulated environment helps a lot as you know what it is like sitting for 4 continuous hours and answering those tricky questions.
READ QUESTION COMPLETELY AND CAREFULLY: During the actual exam you may feel that the question you are attempting is the same that you have gone through mock test or question bank. BUT still read the questions carefully and completely along with all the 4 answer options. You would have a question/s where there is slight change in wording and so the answer would be different from your earlier one. Also there may be case where one of the options is slightly changed to make it the MOST appropriate answer than the one you had attempted while going through question bank. From my experience you won’t find a single question repeated as it is from the ISACA question bank. In short don’t jump to the answer but read the question carefully and completely.
MAINTAIN RIGHT SPEED IN THE EXAM: During the exam maintain the speed. Don’t run too fast in haste of completing the exam and don’t lag behind by spending more time than what is required. You have 200 questions and 4 hours. A good approach is to break this into a target of 50-55 questions per hour. After every hour you can check your speed and adjust accordingly. Its good to take a 1-2 min break (just relax on your seat) after each hour and then continue.
11. STUDY CIRCLE, REVIEW COURSE AND STUDY GROUP: Joining the local chapter study circle course, and/or review course and / or forming study group is useful particularly to improve in weak areas. Different people from different educational background and work experience come together and share their views and knowledge which is not only helpful from exam point of view but also helps is networking with people. Another benefit is that you remain in touch with your CRM and domains of study and keeps the pressure for preparing for the exam.
12. SELF BELIEF AND CONFIDENCE: Believe in yourself that you would be able to clear the exam. A regular study, review of your study plan and appropriate action would help you maintain the right direction and also make you feel good, confident and stay focused.
Hope these points would be useful to you in preparing for the exam. Wish you all the best for your exam
Thanks and regards
Sachin Porwal
Tuesday, March 17, 2009
Tax Rates in Nigeria
Personal Income Tax Rates
Chargeable Profit | % | Tax on Band | Cummulative Charge Profit | Cummulative Tax | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | 30,000.00 | 5.00% | 1,500.00 | 30,000.00 | 1,500.00 |
| Next | 30,000.00 | 10.00% | 3,000.00 | 60,000.00 | 4,500.00 |
| Next | 50,000.00 | 15.00% | 7,500.00 | 110,000.00 | 12,000.00 |
| Next | 50,000.00 | 20.00% | 10,000.00 | 160,000.00 | 22,000.00 |
| Over | 160,000.00 | 25.00% |
The Employment Income on which minimum tax is due is still N30,000.00
Personal Relief’s (S.33)
| Personal Allowance | N5,000 plus 20% Earned income |
| Children Allowance | N2,500 per child (Limited to 4 children) |
| Dependent Relative Allowance | N2,000(max for 2) |
| Life Assurance Relief (LAR) | Allowances are given in respect of premium paid by the taxpayer on policies taken out of the life taxpayer. |
Rates of Withholding tax for companies are as follows:
Dividend, Interest & Rent | 10.00% |
Royalties | 10.00% |
Commissions, Consultancy, Technical & Management | 10.00% |
Construction | 5.00% |
| All types of contacts and agency arrangements, other than | |
|---|---|
Sales in the ordinary course of business | 5.00% |
Directors’ Fees | 10.00% |
0.00% | |
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0.00% | |
Companies Income Tax Rates
The income tax applicable to companies from 1961 to date are as follows:
1st April 1961 - 31st March 1972 | • 40% plus super tax. (Super tax was payable under certain circumstances) |
1st April 1972 - 31st March 1975 | • 40% on the first N10, 000 plus 45% on the excess Over N10, 000 |
1st April 1975 - 31st March 1976 | • NIL on the first N6, 000 plus 40% on the excess over N6,000 |
1st April 1976 - 31st March 1978 | • NIL on first N6, 000 plus 45% on the excess over N6,000 |
1st April 1978 -31st March 1979 | • NIL on the first N6, 000 plus 50% on the excess 6,000 |
1st April 1979 – 31st March 1986 | • 45% |
1st Jan 1987 – 31st Dec. 1988 | • 40% |
1st Jan 1989 – 31st Dec. 1990 | • 40% |
1st Jan.1991 – 31st Dec. 1991 | • 40% |
1st Jan 1992 – 31st Dec. 1992 | • 35% (Decree changing rate from 40%- 35% was passed in 1993) |
1st Jan.1993 – 31st Dec.1995 | • 35% |
1st Jan 1996 – Date (2008) | • 30% |
Thursday, September 4, 2008
In house Computer Training programme
Dear All,
I write to inform you of our departmental In house Computer Training programme plans as directed by the Head- RM & QA.
Date: Friday 5th, September 2008.
Time: 11am. Prompt
Venue: RM & QA Office (Head Office)
This training is compulsory for the entire participants below.
Participants
Silas Nwoke H- RM & QA
Lara Olaiya
Ifayi Ene-ota Facilitator
Okoro Amogu
Ebere Okeke
Godwin Oyedokun Facilitator
The available Training Manual will be of grate assistance for this In House Training.
Thank you.
Godwin Oyedokun ACA
(Investment Control & Management Review)
Risk Management & Quality Assurance Dept.
XL Management Services Limited
Plot 883 Samuel Manuwa Street,
Off Bishop Aboyade Cole Street,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
Tel: +234-1-2620870, 2621320, 4613606
Fax: +234-1-4616877
DL: +234-1-7613065, +234-8033737184, +234-8087041477
E-mail: g.oyedokun@xlmanagementservices.com
www.xlmanagementservices.com
I write to inform you of our departmental In house Computer Training programme plans as directed by the Head- RM & QA.
Date: Friday 5th, September 2008.
Time: 11am. Prompt
Venue: RM & QA Office (Head Office)
This training is compulsory for the entire participants below.
Participants
Silas Nwoke H- RM & QA
Lara Olaiya
Ifayi Ene-ota Facilitator
Okoro Amogu
Ebere Okeke
Godwin Oyedokun Facilitator
The available Training Manual will be of grate assistance for this In House Training.
Thank you.
Godwin Oyedokun ACA
(Investment Control & Management Review)
Risk Management & Quality Assurance Dept.
XL Management Services Limited
Plot 883 Samuel Manuwa Street,
Off Bishop Aboyade Cole Street,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
Tel: +234-1-2620870, 2621320, 4613606
Fax: +234-1-4616877
DL: +234-1-7613065, +234-8033737184, +234-8087041477
E-mail: g.oyedokun@xlmanagementservices.com
www.xlmanagementservices.com
CITN NEWS
CITN News
NEW GUIDELINES FOR DIRECT MEMBERSHIP
Effective from July 3, 2007, Council of the Institute approved the following as the guidelines for Direct Membership of the Institute:
1. Members of Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) with one year post membership experience
2. Lawyers who had 3 years post-bar tax experience
3. Any staff of State Boards of Internal Revenue or Federal Inland Revenue Service who had been on the cadre of Senior Inspector of Taxes (SIT) on or before 31st December 2004 with first degree or HND
4. ANAN members not below grade level 10 inducted on or before 31st December 2004 with first degree or HND as at 31st December 2003 and with at least 2 years tax experience
Visit www.citn.org
NEW GUIDELINES FOR DIRECT MEMBERSHIP
Effective from July 3, 2007, Council of the Institute approved the following as the guidelines for Direct Membership of the Institute:
1. Members of Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) with one year post membership experience
2. Lawyers who had 3 years post-bar tax experience
3. Any staff of State Boards of Internal Revenue or Federal Inland Revenue Service who had been on the cadre of Senior Inspector of Taxes (SIT) on or before 31st December 2004 with first degree or HND
4. ANAN members not below grade level 10 inducted on or before 31st December 2004 with first degree or HND as at 31st December 2003 and with at least 2 years tax experience
Visit www.citn.org
Tuesday, September 2, 2008
My Vision of the New Nigerian Farmer
By Dr. Abubakar Bukola Saraki [i]
Courtesies,
I wish to start my address tonight with the story of a Nigerian:
“My name is Uzodinma Usman Obafemi. I am a Nigerian farmer. I am 60 years old. I have no formal education. I have been a farmer almost all my life because my parents and grand parents are farmers. Most of what we produced went into feeding ourselves. Some years, when the harvest is good, we have a little surplus from our farms, which we sell in the neighbouring markets and earn a little money.
When I was 20 years old, I took a patch of land of about 2 hectares near our village and I started my own farm. Since then, I have been farming the way I learnt it from my parents, using hoes and cutlasses and constantly waiting on the rains. Even though I have farmed for more than 40 years, I am still poor. I believe my condition should change because I work very hard, but I don’t know what to do to bring about this change. All my young children who could have assisted me in the farm have all gone to the city in search of other jobs. They consider farming a difficult and backward occupation.
I heard that one can borrow money from banks to buy new seeds, fertilisers and pesticides and to also hire tractors, but since I can’t read or write I don’t even know how to go about it. I depend on government to bring fertilisers, but most of the time, it does not come and when it comes, it is either too late or too little.
In some seasons when the yield is good, I get about 2 tonnes of harvest from my farm. But I heard that in some countries, they get up to 6 tonnes or even 8 tonnes from the same size of farms. I wonder how they do this. However, whenever the rain is late or is short I do not even get up to 2 tonnes. When this happens, I don’t get enough to feed my family not to talk of earning some money to pay for other things.
In the seasons that I get good harvest, I always have too much than my family can consume, and we don’t know what to do with the surplus. The only option left to me is often to sell it for cheap at the village market or it goes to waste.”
Distinguished ladies and gentlemen, this story reflects the reality of most of our farmers, which we often conclude represent 70% of our population. Interestingly, poverty reports also say 70% of our population live below the poverty line. Is this a mere coincidence, or are we to suggest that there is a correlation between agriculture and poverty? I will be reluctant to suggest so. Yet, the story I started with represents a typical face of a Nigerian farmer, trapped in a vicious circle of endless hard labour, and caught at the very edge of survival.
Former President of
There are many approaches and understanding of what needs to be done to tackle poverty and achieve prosperity in Africa and in
I have a firm belief that improving the capacity of Nigerians to achieve development must be driven through a well-articulated strategy of developing
I am delighted to note that the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) projects an 8% growth in agriculture. It has been observed that even a 6% national growth is enough to make the African farmer prosper, achieve food security and create wealth.
However, this is not the first time we would be setting targets and seeing visions in
When I became the governor of
Before the end of that first year, we inaugurated a pilot scheme called Back-To-Farm. Under this programme, a total of 868.35 hectares of land was cultivated in 80 sites across the 16 Local Governments of the State using the existing vehicles of the State’s Farmers’ Council and the Ministry of Agriculture.
Through the Farmers’ Council, we gave out money to farmers to prepare designated farmlands, and we provided seedlings, chemicals and fertilizers. Then we used the ministry of agriculture to supervise the scheme.
However, the outcome did not quite justify the enthusiasm and the investments that went into that programme. In retrospect, we realized a fundamental mistake we made: we have tried to mount a new carriage on an old horse that was also ill. So, we couldn’t go far.
For one, the farmers that participated in the programme largely saw the money and the inputs we gave them as their own dividend of democracy. So, there was no commitment, or even intention on the part of majority of them to pay back or even get results that would justify the investments.
Secondly, we found that most of the farmers are in their 60s and 70s and they lack any form of formal education. We found that they used very little or no fertilizer and it came as no surprise that the best yield recorded was between 1 to 2 tonnes per hectare.
We also found that the ministry of agriculture that we left in charge of the programme had been moribund for many years; they had not been called upon to do anything in a long time. Therefore, they had not had any new training or even experience to cope with the kind of challenge that we gave them.
Therefore, we learnt that trying to spoon-feed farmers would not work. We also learnt another important lesson regarding subsidy, especially regarding fertilizer distribution.
It has always been suspected that only 10-20% of subsidized inputs get to the actual farmers. Rather, they only help to enrich black marketers and unscrupulous officials. We found that despite repeated announcements on radio, telling farmers that fertilizers were available; our warehouses were still full of fertilizers for months because we managed to block all avenues of diversions and other leakages.
What all these taught us was that we needed a radical approach and policy for agriculture if we must use agriculture to drive our poverty reduction efforts and create wealth.
The core issue here is that we must rise above the subsistence level, and move into large scale commercial farming that would guarantee increased productivity while gradually integrating the small farm holders into the core farming centres.
This was the genesis of our commercial agriculture initiative with the Zimbabwean farmers. Under this project, we have been able to bring an additional 2,000 hectares under cultivation and, after the first harvest last year; we are expanding to 4,000 hectares this year. We are even more confident that this programme will generate substantial marketable surplus in food and cash crops that will encourage the development and expansion of local agri-processing and agricultural exports.
The key objective here is increasing yield per hectare. Where our local farmers are achieving maximum of 2 tonnes per hectare in maize for example, the Zimbabwean farmers would be doing a minimum of 6 tonnes for the same size of land, with the possibility of even surpassing this.
I must thank His Excellency, President Olusegun Obasanjo for his support on this project, and I am glad to note that through his abiding interest and encouragement, some of my colleagues have shown significant interest in replicating this scheme in their own States and have even commenced negotiations with the Zimbabwean farmers after visiting our State.
Even though the Zimbabwean farmers’ project has been the better known of our agriculture programme, for us the more exciting is the Integrated Youth Farm Centre, which we hold as is the future of commercial agriculture in
The Integrated Youth Farm is conceived to create a successor-generation of farmers, by bringing well-educated and relatively educated young men and women together at a camp in Malete, about 45 kilometres out of the State capital,
At the centre, the youths are being taught the rudiments and dynamics of modern agriculture, from farming to farm management, agriculture mechanization and intensive farming in a broad range of agriculture areas, including animal production.
This programme is directly linked with our commercial agriculture initiative and is headed by one of the expatriate farmers from
Another main focus of our agriculture initiatives is irrigation, which is also central to agriculture development in the country generally. Because of their exclusive dependence on rain, our farmers can only plant once in a year, thereby severely limiting their productivity. With irrigation however, they can farm throughout the year and achieve double cropping. This has a direct advantage in increased income, and increased productivity.
We have tried to achieve this with our irrigated rice scheme in Duku-Lade, Patigi local government of our State. The irrigation facility was built in the 1960s by the then Northern Nigerian Government of Sardauna Ahmadu
However, a lot more investments need to go into the development of irrigation system in the country. The Federal Government must give irrigation development a priority attention because it is more than what a single State can handle. However, the States can focus on the development of medium and small-scale irrigation facilities for the small landholders. Countries like
The Federal policy that a minimum of 10% of bread flour must be made of cassava presents an important opportunity for value-addition. In collaboration with the Nigerian Institute for Tropical Agriculture, IITA in
We have also set up one Micro-Processing centres in each of our 16 Local Governments. The work on these has reached advanced stages while others have been completed.
We have no doubt that all these actions would position
Our on-going efforts in the construction of a new terminal building and a cargo terminal at the
Perhaps, one major attitude change that is required is for us to see agriculture as serious business. This attitude change is necessary for us to achieve the kind of funding that is necessary in the development of this sector. It is gratifying to note that this year alone, provision has been made for a N50 billion (US $350m) single digit interest rate lending to farmers. Of this, N30 billion is to be provided for by commercial banks while the balance will be jointly granted by the Central Bank of Nigeria, development and agricultural banks as well as state governments. This is the first time in the history of agriculture that this is happening in
As I said earlier, both the governments and the private sector have crucial roles to play here, not only because it holds great responsibilities for us all, but also because it offers great opportunities. We have mentioned some of the things that governments at all levels need to do, but government should begin to withdraw from buying tractors and bulldozers.
We should invite the private sector to set up Agric Malls that would serve as one-stop shop for farmers. Farmers can go to these malls and hire tractors and other mechanization tools for fee. This way, an average farmer does not need to raise millions of naira to buy a tractor, and government is relieved of all the problems associated with buying and maintaining tractors.
One other area that we must focus on in increasing productivity in agriculture is our use of fertilizer. It has been observed that we use too little fertilizer in this country. Where we use about 7kg of fertilizer, an average farmer in a western country would use 100kg. If we must use more fertilizer however, we need to first develop our production capacity by setting up urea production plants across the country.
Development of physical infrastructure like good roads is a necessary pre-condition for achieving economic growth. Investments in road networks and efficient transportation systems that will enhance farm-market linkage are very crucial to the development of agriculture. This is another major area of responsibility for the governments.
Distinguished ladies and gentlemen, as I said earlier, my vision of a new Nigerian farmer is built on my vision of a new Nigerian agriculture. I have outlined some of the strategic actions we need to take to achieve the new Nigerian agriculture.
I have a dream of the new Nigerian farmer. And I believe that with all the initiatives and interventions I have outlined, that dream will someday soon become a reality.
I dream of a day when farming would no longer be regarded as mere means of survival but as a business in its own right with all the potentials and possibilities that come with any other business.
I dream of a day when graduates of accounting or banking and finance would prefer to own and run their own farms rather than seek banking jobs; a day when young men and women who hold degrees in Engineering or any other degree for that matter, would opt for a career in farming, not because they have no options but because they regard farming as a more lucrative enterprise.
I dream of a young man or woman in jeans and T-shirt walking into a bank with his lap-top. And on his computer is able to make a cash-flow analysis and other business arguments to persuade a bank to give him credits based on demonstrated profitability of his farming venture.
And I dream of a day when bankers would be milling around farms seeking business and competing for farmers’ bank accounts.
I dream of a Nigerian farmer that is capable of taking advantage of technologies and products of research to multiply his yield; when from one hectare, he would harvest 10 tonnes of maize and 40 tonnes of cassava.
I dream of a Nigerian tomato farmer who would not be satisfied with his job until he is able to process and package tomato puree and deliver it directly to the supermarkets.
I dream of a new Nigerian farmer with a minimum of 50 hectares of land, and applying 100kg of fertiliser at the right time, instead of 7kg when it is too late.
I dream of a day when the children of the rich will take to farming and the children of the poor will not seek to escape from the farm. A day when farms would be run by the 5th and 6th generations of family owners. A day when, not 70% but only a fraction of our population would be involved in agriculture and would use this to feed the rest of the country and export.
The Nigerian farmer of my dream is one who is familiar with products of agricultural research and innovation, and he is able to use it to expand his productivity and profitability. He can farm all year round because has the benefit of irrigation. He is able to invest in and use the information technology to locate and access markets worldwide. He is able to integrate forward through value-addition activities like processing, packaging and so on. He can stand proudly anywhere in the world and say, I am a new Nigerian farmer. That is the farmer of my dream.
Conclusion:
Distinguished ladies and gentlemen, my dreams can become a reality in the not too distant feature. However, we still need to do so much to bring about this day. The government of
Ladies and gentlemen, countries like
Thank you and God bless.
[i] The Executive Governor of
Monday, June 30, 2008
CIS Information Technology Lecture Note
PART I
DATA PROCESSING CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION
Data versus Information
Data refers to raw, unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of facts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records.
Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Information involves the communication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate irrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of data may constitute information in a specific context; for example, when you want to contact your friend, his or her telephone number is a piece of information; otherwise, it is just one element of data in the telephone directory.
Computers have made the processing function much easier. Large quantities of data can be processed quickly through computers aiding in the conversion of data to information. Raw data enter the system and are transformed into the system's output, that is, information to support managers in their decision making.
Attributes of quality Information
A quality Information must possess the following attributes:
It must be Accurate
It must be Timely
It must be Relevant
It must be Up – to Date
It must be clear
It must be concise
It must be simple-easily understandable
It must be complete and
It must be focused.
Its cost must not be more than its benefit
It must be well presented
DATA PROCESSING
Data processing is the capture, storage and processing of data for the purpose of transforming them into information, useful for decision-making.
Method of data processing
1. Manual data processing
2. Mechanical / electro- mechanical data processing
3. Electronic data processing
1. Manual data processing; This method makes use of desk calculator in processing data without using sophisticated machine.
2. Mechanical / electro- mechanical data processing; this method uses punch card, adding machine, manual typewriter as well as accounting machine in processing data.
3. Electronic data processing; data are processed using computer.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC/ COMPUTER DATA PROCESSING
Electronic Data processing: - is any computer process that converts data into information. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on a mainframe, minicomputer, microcomputer, or personal computer. Because data are most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.
To better market their profession, a computer programmer or a systems analyst that might once have referred, such as during the 1970s, to the computer systems that they produce as data-processing systems more often than not nowadays refers to the computer systems that they produce by some other term that includes the word information, such as information systems, information technology systems, or management information systems.
In the context of data processing, Data are defined as numbers or characters that represent measurements from observable phenomena. A single datum is a single measurement from observable phenomena. Measured information is then algorithmically derived and/or logically deduced and/or statistically calculated from multiple data. (Evidence). Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or a meaningful stimulus that can cascade into further queries.
More generally, the term data processing can apply to any process that converts data from one format to another, although data conversion would be the more logical and correct term. From this perspective, data processing becomes the process of converting information into data and also the converting of data back into information. The distinction is that conversion doesn't require a question (query) to be answered. For example, information in the form of a string of characters forming a sentence in English is converted or encoded from a keyboard's key-presses as represented by hardware-oriented integer codes into ASCII integer codes after which it may be more easily processed by a computer—not as merely raw, amorphous integer data, but as a meaningful character in a natural language's set of graphemes—and finally converted or decoded to be displayed as characters, represented by a font on the computer display. In that example we can see the stage-by-stage conversion of the presence of and then absence of electrical conductivity in the key-press and subsequent release at the keyboard from raw substantially-meaningless integer hardware-oriented data to evermore-meaningful information as the processing proceeds toward the human being.
STAGES / STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING
The following are stages in data processing:
1. Data gathering
2. Input
3. Processing
4. Storage
5. Output
6. Distribution
A computer system has four basic components, which can be seen. These components are referred to as computer hardware. The hardware is divided into the input device, the central processing unit and the backing storage.
These components relate directly to the basic steps in data processing.
DATA GATHERING: The first steps in data processing is the collection and recording of raw data in handwritten form before being converted to machine (machine language) usable form. These data may be collected form different sources e.g. form source documents like receipts, vouchers, invoices etc. data can be collected through several means including the use of questionnaire, the use of correspondents, telephone, observation and interview.
Data origination and collection is referred to as data capturing.
INPUT: this is the means by which data are fed into the data processing system.
- Originate – Data originate as a result of a business event or transaction.
- Classify – allow for identification of data with a certain category.
- Edit –data are edited when they are input to detect any error that may exist in them. It can also occur during of the three basic steps of data processing.
PROCESSING: this is the planned series of actions and operations performed on data in making the data more meaningful.
- Sort –sorting arranges a file of records according to keys, which are used to determine the sequence of records.
- Calculate – includes all standard arithmetic operation and logical deductions.
- Summaries – that is, making aggregate of data into totals or condensation that are more meaningful.
- Compare – this is logical comparison.
- Retrieve – data move from secondary to the central processing unit so that processing operations may perform.
STORAGE: this is the process of keeping data for future use
- Protect – stored data are protected from unauthorized erasure, modification or merge.
- Index – create and maintain addresses indicating one physical storage location of a particular piece of data e.g., card catalogue in a library.
- Update – adding, deleting and change of stored data to reflect new ones if wage rate is increased.
OUTPUT: this is the out come of the processing
- Re- print management information on a hard copy medium to control business operation
- Display –appear on CRT, terminal.
- Issue – prepare output document such as purchase orders or ser5vicse needed to complete a transaction.
DISTRIBUTION: The outcome of data processed will have to be communicated or conveying or pass over to its user for necessary decision making
Data processing stages (Summary).
Origination of data
Preparation- getting the data ready
Input- the act of passing the data to the processing stage.
Processing-all that is necessary to arrive at the expected or required result.
Output-the production of the end product.
ORIGINATION:- The first steps in data processing is the collection and recording of raw data in handwritten form before being converted to machine (machine language) usable form. These data may be collected form different sources e.g. form source documents like receipts, vouchers, invoices etc. data can be collected through several means including the use of questionnaire, the use of correspondents, telephone, observation, interview as earlier discussed.
Data origination and collection is referred to as data capturing.
PREPARTION:-This is the act of getting the data ready before passing into the input stages. Under data preparation some or all of the following steps may be involved.
(a). Data Classification:- This is concerned with grouping of data logically into manageable to aid processing. For example, data taken form students record may be classified by students’ names, matriculation numbers, grades, sex age, state of origin etc.
(b) Sorting:-After data are classified, it is necessary to arrange them in per-determined sequence to facilitate processing.
3. INPUT: - This is the act of passing the data to the processing stage. Some input media may be involved to carry out this stage. For example input devices are being keyboard, mouse, etc. may be involved when digital computers are being used in processing.
4. PROCESSING: - This is the manipulation of data with a view to convert them to useful information. The processing could involve arithmetic and logical operations.
5. OUTPUT OF INFORMATION: - This is the act of making the result of processing available to the user. In Electronic Data processing (EDP) The result can be in two forms: Softcopy and Hardcopy.
When the results are left in primary storage to be displayed on the VDU anytime the user needs them or when the need them or when copied onto any secondary storage medium like diskettes which can be referenced when the need arises, printed on any medium, such as paper, printed report is referred to as hardcopy.
FACORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF DATA PROCESSING METHODS
In choosing method to be adopted in data processing, the following factors should be taking into consideration.
1. Size and type of Business.
2. Time frame
3. Link between applications.
1. Size and type of Business: It is very important to take into consideration the size and nature of the business when selecting method to use. In a very small organization, single person may be able to produce all the information required but as the volume of the business increases, more people and aids may be employed.
2. Time frame: The requirement of the processed data in time wise will also be a major factor that needs to be considered in choosing any method of data processing. Some information requirements are less time critical than others
3. LINK BETWEEN APPLICATIONS: Where data is needed or more than one information requirement, a unique method of processing is required
IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON DATA PROCESSING IN BANK/ BUSINESS
Information is the life blood of a business. A business simply could not service its consumers or make high – level decisions without information to support customer service and decision-making. The followings among other are the impact of using computer system in processing in business environments.
(1) Easier business growth
(2) Fewer clerical workers
(3) Automatic of decisions.
(4) Lower costs.
(5) More or better information
DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
(1) BATCH PROCESSING: - It is a technique by which items to be processed must be coded and collected into groups of batches prior to processing. A batch consists of either a convenient number of records or a collection of records relating to a given period i.e. daily, weekly, monthly etc accumulated until a sufficient number present to justify mass updating of a master file. Each batch is used to update the master file using maintenance program and an output produced. It is one of the early attempts to optimize the use of the efficiency of a computer system. There is isolated from his job.
This type of processing is suitable for accounting and receivable, stock control, invoicing etc. simple batch processing system has the following advantages:
(a) Less complex, hence not liable to develop deadlock.
(b) System never goes into waste state
(c) There is no contention for resources between users.
(d) There is less overhead cost because operating system does not have to wait for 1-0 events.
(2) REAL TIME PROCESSING: - Real Time = Immediately, now. The processing of data in a sufficiently repaid manner so that the result of the processing of data in a sufficiently rapid manner so that the results of the processing are valuable in time to influence the current activity or processing being monitored or controlled.
The transactions are applied to the master file as they happen and information is obtained from the system on demand. It is an online system that allows immediate processing stages at once, e.g. validation, updating and reporting. Real time processing requires dual-purpose input and output devices such as terminals and VDUS. Real time systems are used for airline ticket reservation, space exploration, theatre tickets, hotel booking systems, guidance and defense systems etc.
Advantages:
(a) Immediate access to the latest up to date information via terminals at the point where the information is required.
(b) Files of data are permanently up to date and on line
(c) No need for costly and time-consuming data preparation and control operation.
(d) Enable excellent provision of management information for decision-making.
(e) No rigidity is imposed on the users.
Disadvantages:
(a) Back-up system is very complex and special methods of working will have to be observed when break down occurs.
(b) Development costs are higher, in terms of hardware.
(c) Problems of data integrity may occur.
(d) Audit trail are not so well provided for as control is centered around the number of messages input rather than details of individual transactions.
(e) The staff involved will need special training and will need to be of a high caliber.
(3) ON-LINE: - It concerns the equipment which is connected or re-engaged and functioning with the CPU and main programs e.g. tele-type units, consoles card readers, OCR readers etc. It is at least a one-way communication between operators at terminals and the CPU.
NOTE: an on-line system is not always real-time system, but real-time systems must have must have on-line capability and equipment.
(4) TIME SHARING PROCESS: - The system interacts with many users, giving each of them fast individual attention on a time slice basis. Multi-processing is easier in a time-sharing system. A user is not aware that others have access to the system. It is also an on-line processing technique.
Logical / physical Components:
(a) Simultaneously or concurrency – a variable number of users at essentially the same time
(b) Independently – program being handled by the system are operated independently of one another without the risk of being inter-mixed or having security breached.
(c) Immediacy – All requests for computer response receive that response within seconds.
(d) Spatial Un-limitability – very remote terminals
Uses: Used for short jobs usually scientific applications; used for CPU-bound jobs, where fast response is required; where many users are available.
Advantages:
(a) Memory is economically used (It supports multi-programming
(b) Computer time is economically used.
(c) No room for monopoly since there is time slice for each job.
Minicomputers, interactive mainframe systems and super microcomputers are suitable for this type of processing.
Distributed data processing: is a system in which there are several autonomous but interacting processors and or data store at different geographical locations linked over a communication network. The key features of distributed processing are as follow:
- Computers distributed over a wide geographical area.
- A computer can access the files of other computers in the system.
- The ability for computers within the system to process data jointly or interactively.
- Processing is either carried out centrally or at dispersed locations.
PART II
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
DEFINATION OF A COMPUTER
Computer is an electromechanical device which accepts data as input processes the data according to a set of previously stored instructions called program stored and releases the results of processing i.e. (information) as output.
Computer is defined as an electromechanical device because its principle of operation is based on electron ICs and mechanics. For instance, the registers, counters, RAM, ROM, etc all operate on the principle of electronics
Data as used in the definition is referred to as raw fact, that is, facts that are yet to be processed.
Information is the result obtained from processed data
The set of logical instructions given to the computer to enable it process such data is known as a program.
What is a computer system?
The term computer system refers to both a set of electro-mechanical part (i.e. the computer hardware) and a set of programs (i.e. the computer software), all used together as a single unit. A computer system thus consists of two main component systems namely the hardware system and the software system. The hardware system refers to the physical equipments such as hard disk, processor, memory (RAM and ROM), floppy disk, CD-ROM, keyboards etc. the software system is a collection of software programs such as operating system, application packages, compilers, etc.
The term computer system refers to both the set of electro-mechanical parts (the computer hardware) and the set of program (the computer software). That controls the hardware.
Basically a computer system consists of two main components viz;
(a) Hardware system and (b) Software system
(Hardware system + Software System = Computer system)
FUNCTION OF COMPUTER
Computers perform three main functions. These are;
(i) Accept data
(ii) Process data, and
(iii) Output results
The processing functions that computers perform are that they;
(i) Carry out simple arithmetic operations such as addition, subtractions, multiplications and divisions
(ii) Perform simple text manipulation operations such as inserting or deleting characters
(iii) Carry out simple logical operations such as comparing values of two numbers or determine whether or not words contain the same letters.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
The computer has the following basic features:
Automatic: computer are automatic in that once started on a job, automatically selects the instructions for its operation from a stored program and then proceeds to carry out these instructions until the problem is solved.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): controls the activities of the other machines connected to it. This enable activity can be changed as often as required, and for this reason, there are very few fields of human endeavors in which computer cannot be applied.
Electronics: computers are electronics in that they made of electronic devices such as transistors, capacitors ,inductors, ICs chip etc. these electronic components make possible the very high speed of individual operations in modern computers
Speed: modern computers operate at a very high speed.
Accuracy: when a computer is programmed correctly and when the input is entered properly, the accuracy of the output is guaranteed.
REASONS FOR USING COMPUTER
The benefits accruable from using computers are:
Speed: computers operate at very high speeds in that problem that may take 100 men so many hours to solve may not take a computer more than few seconds.
Accuracy: the results of operations carry out by computers when they are properly programmed and data correctly entered are very accurate and reliable.
Large storage capacity: computers have very large storage capacity. A microcomputer is capable of storing billions of information. Access to the information so stored in the computer is always guaranteed.
Cost- effectiveness: a computer can be used to perform within few seconds jobs that would take several people hours to perform manually. This reduces drastically cost of hiring labour.
Ability to work without resting: subject to suitable environmental conditions, computer can work for hours, days or weeks non-stop without getting tired. It neither goes on leave nor goes on strike.
REASONS FOR COMPUTER FAILURE
Computers despite being built with high degree of accuracy, speed, reliability and precision have failed to accomplish their goals to the satisfaction of those who use computer-produced information. The following reasons could be adduced as to why computers sometimes disappoint users.
Input data error: - data must be correctly entered into the computer. If incorrect data are entered, computer would process such data as corrects ones and the output results of such processing would be incorrect. This is a case of garbage in garbage out (GIGO).
Programming error: - a computer programmer writes a set of logical instructions to be used by computers to read data, process it and produce output. Sometimes the program so written may contain syntax and logical error, which may go undetected during the writing and compilation stages of the programs. When such programs are used to process data the result of the processing would produce incorrect answers to the computer user which the user may not know
Virus attack: - a computer virus is a program written by a professional computer programmer with the sole intention of causing computer systems to malfunction. When the computer memory is virus infected, the result of this is a computer system whose output does not meet the expectation of the computer user.
Viruses are destructive or deceptive programs that spread from computer to computer over the Internet or a network. Viruses can be attached to other files or disguised as files that look ordinary. You can help protect your computer from viruses and other security threats by:
· Installing and using up-to-date antivirus software.
· Setting up your e-mail and Internet software so that it is more difficult for files containing viruses to make their way onto your computer at all.
In addition to using up-to-date antivirus software, one should also make sure that it has a "real-time scanning" feature this is depending on the brand of software, this feature might have another name. Real-time scanning checks files before they are opened or used.
HEALTH HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONTINUOUS USE OF COMPUTERS
1. Working on computers for long period causes eyes strain.
2. Not sitting in the correct position lead to back problems
3. Another well known hazard of computer usage is repetitive strain injury. Problems with the hands, wrists, arms, necks, back are cause by spending long hours on the computers.
4. Stress can also result from overuse of computers.
SOLUTION TO THESE PROBLEMS INCLUDE
Stress can be reduced by taking rest breaks, so also strain injury. People should learn to sit in the right position and upright with legs at right angle to the floor and screen at head height and at reasonable distance from the face.
Preventive is definitely the easiest way to deal with these potentials problems.
CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
It is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish among the various types of computer systems. Here an attempt is made to classify the various types of computers using the following parameters:
Principle of operation
Technology and date of manufacture
Size, Cost and Capacities
Purpose
A. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONS
Based on principle of operations (I.e. data representation) computers can be classified to types as digital, analog and hybrid computers.
1. DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computer breaks down problem into arithmetic such as numbers, letters, and other symbols and represents data in discrete form. It is built from combination logic circuit such as logic gates. Digital computers are very useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulation of data. Its advantages are accuracy, reliability and versatility. Hence, they are regarded as general purpose machine.
2. ANALOG COMPUTER
These are computers that set up analog of problems and represents data by continuous measurement. Analog computers are built from amplifier, potentiometer, adders, subtracts flip- flops, registers and other sequential logic circuits. They are essentially measuring instruments.
When compared with digital computers, analog computers are less accurate, reliable and versatile. They are best suited to represent measurable measuring quantities. Hence, they are mostly regarded as special-purpose computers.
3. HYBRID COMPUTERS
Hybrid computers combine the functions and characteristics of both analog and digital computers. That is depending on the prevailing situation, they can be used either as analog or digital. Hybrid computers have three main parts; digital, analog and interface.
The INTERFACE provides a communication link between the analog and digital through the subsystems of control, data and logic. Hybrid computers are widely used for solving problems of optimization in dynamic systems.
B. SIZE, COST AND FUNCTIONS;
1. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
A mainframe computer is large computers in term of price, size of memory and speed. Mainframe computer usually need a specialized environment in which to operate with dust and temperature carefully controlled. They are usually sophisticated and large, thus they need detail support from the manufacturers. They are mostly used in large establishment e.g. Banks and Universities.
Futures:
(i) this category lies between the supper computers and the mini computers
(ii) they are cheaper than super computers but costlier than mini computers
(iii) they operate at high speed
(iv) they have many peripherals attached to them
(v) they occupy large space
(vi) they have large main memory system and various backup facilities
(vii) they do computation very fast and have very high precision
(viii) they are used for commercial data processing and for solving scientific and engineering problems
(ix) they are mostly used by large establishments
2. Mini computers
These are smaller less powerful and less expensive than mainframe. They are easier to install and manage and require less space for installation.
Futures:
(i) they are mostly special purpose computers
(ii) they are cheaper, smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer
(iii) they are more sophisticated compare to mainframe and hence their capacities, memory size, overall performance have overlapped those of mainframe computers
(iv) unlike the mainframe; data are collected and processed as they are generated
(v) The most powerful minicomputers are termed super-minis.
3. Microcomputer:
This is also called personal computers (PC). It cost between #80, 000.00 to #500, 000.00. They vary in size from small portable such as laptop computers that can be carried about like briefcase, to powerful desktop work stations such as those used by engineers and scientists. A microcomputer (generally use by only one person at a time) uses a microprocessor or chip as its CPU.
4. SUPER COMPUTERS
These are Computer that can handle a very big amount of scientific computation. It is maintained in a special room or environment. It may be about 50,000 times faster than a microcomputer, and may cost as much as over #2 billion. It is used in a special area like defense and weaponry, weather forecasting, scientific research etc.
Futures:
(i) they are largest computers
(ii) they are fastest computers
(iii) they are the most expensive computers
(iv) the manufacturing cost is high and so the market is limited
(v) they are very good at calculations
C. TECHNOLOGY AND DATE OF MANUFACTURE
It is usual to associate each stage of computer development commonly referred to as generation with one sort of technological innovation or another. Each innovation usually makes possible or available before in the light of this. Computers could be divided into five groups, viz: First generation computers, Second generation computers, Third generation computers, Fourth generation computers and Fifth generation computers.
The first large scale electronic computer, the electronic numerical integrator and computer (ENIAC) became operational in 1946. It contained approximately 18,000 electronic vacuum tubes. ENIAC weighted 30 tons and occupied about 1,500 square feet of floor space. It was able to perform a scientific calculation involving the multiplication of four numbers in approximately 9 milliseconds (9/looths of a second). Since that time, the technology used in the design and production of computers has accelerated at a remarkable pace.
The term generation was applied to different types of computers to help delineate the major technological developments in hardware and software. To date, computer technology has evolved through four distinct generations and is currently developing into fifth generation thus general-purpose computers. Most input and output media were punched cards and magnetic tape and main memory was almost exclusively made up of hundreds of vacuum tubes. These computers were slow and large and produced a tremendous amount of heat. They could run one programal a time. ENIAC and UNIVAC
Second Generation (1959 – 1963)
By the early 1960s, transistors and some other solid-state devices that were much smaller than vacuum tubes were being used for much of the computer circuitry. Magnetic cores, which looked like very small metal washers strung together by wires that carried electricity became the most widely used type of main memory. Removable magnetic disk packs, stacks of disks connected by a common spindle (like a stock of records) were introduced as storage devices. (Second – generation machines tended to be smaller, more reliable and significantly faster than first generation computers).
Third Generation (1964 – 1970)
During this period, the integrated circuit – a complete electronic circuit on a silicon chip – replaced transistorized circuitry. The uses of magnetic disks became widespread and computers began to support such capabilities as multiprogramming (processing several programs simultaneously). Minicomputers were being widely used by the early 1970s.
The production of operating systems – a type of systems software – and applications software packages increased rapidly. The size of computers continued to decrease.
Fourth Generation (1971 – 1980)
In 1971, the first electronic computers were introduced that used large-scale integration (LSI) circuits-thousands of integrated circuits on chip – for main memory and logic circuitry (the circuitry that performs the logical operations of the CPU; different types of chips hard different functions.) these computer has a much large capacity to support main memory. This period has also seen increased use of input and output devices that allowed data and instructions to be entered directly through the keyboard. The microprocessor introduce in 1971 combined all of the circuitry for the CPU on a single chip. LSI and the microprocessor enabled the development of the supercomputer
Fifth Generation 1981 – Now
Japan announced the fifth generation computers in 1981. They have the following characteristics:
(a) Integrated circuits with a minimum of 11 million transistors per semiconductor chip
(b) The ability to communicate with users in natural language.
(c) Using simplified programming e.g. structured programs.
(d) Variety of sizes, from portable to super computers.
D. PURPOSE
Based on purpose, computers could be divided into two:
- Special- purpose computers; and
- General-purpose computers.
Special purpose: A computers is said to be special purpose if it is designed to solve a particular problem only. It cannot solve any other problem except that for which it is designed. Examples are traffic control computer and telephone exchange computer.
General Purpose computer: The general purpose computer is designed to solve as many different problems as a user can program on it. In other words it is programmable. Such a computer can be used for computation, artistic work, music composition, teaching etc.
COMPUTER STORAGE SYSTEM
A computer has limited storage capacity for information in its main memory. Limited storage arises because the main memory is made from extensive materials at a moderate cost. The computer primary memory is made up of an array of strings of electronic bits able storage elements called the core. A core is a discrete physical storage cell which is capable of being set by an external signal into one or two states 0 and 1. A core remains in this state until it is changed by some external signal. Thus, a core stores a BIT (Binary Digit) of information.
Bit: a bit is the smallest unit identifiable in the computer memory. A bit in the computer represents 0 and 1 of the binary number system. For example, the binary number 10100111 is made up of 8 bits.
Bytes: a byte is a combination of a specified number of bits and is the smallest addressable unit in the memory. The standard number of bits that constitute a byte is 8. Therefore the binary number 10100111 is one byte.
Word: a number of bits are grouped together to form a word. A word constitutes the amount of data that a computer can handle in a given operation. The number of bits that constitute a word is called the word length. The size of word length varies from one computer to another. The word length of IBM system is 32 bits.
Storage Capacity: each word or bytes in computer memory needs a unique address by which it can be located. A computer word is usually used to represent the address of a particular storage location. If n is the address word length in bit then the maximum number of storage locations which can be Zn.
COMPUTER SPEED AND CAPACITY
The speed at which the CPU operates is referred to as the clock speed. It is expressed in megahertz (MHZ) e.g. 33MHZ=33 million cycles per second.
The speed of a computer is dictated by the speed and power of the elements inside it. For simple applications, speed may not be of great importance and the extra cost of a faster computer may not be justified.
However with some applications, particularly those dealing with large graphics, the faster your computer, the more efficiently the application will run. The speed of the processor chip in a computer is the main factor in determining the overall speed of a computer. Some common processor types are;
IBM compatible PC 486
Macintosh compatible
Increasing the amount of RAM on a computer improves its performance and speed as more information can be checked any time in the RAM. Some computer hard disks are faster at accessing information than others. The amount of free space in a computer hard disk influences its speed. If a computer hard disk is almost full, one might find out that the computer works very slowly. This is because there is no free space for the operating system to utilize as virtual memory.
THE HARDWARE SYSTEM
By the term “HARDWARE” we mean the electro-mechanical (physical part) of the computer system which can be touched, seen, felt or handled. The hardware subsystem of a computer is divided into major parts, namely:
(a) The peripherals subsystems:
- The Input unit
- The Output units and
- External Storage’s
All these are linked together by a switching unit termed the ‘peripheral interface’.
(b) The central processing unit (CPU)
THE INPUT UNIT
Input unit is the medium through which data and instructions fed into the computer system. It provides the medium by which data or instruction or information is fed into computer system.
It accepts input data (information/instructions) and transmits the data as a series of electrical pulses into the computers’ primary memory. An input unit consists of an input devise and an input medium.
Examples of input devices are;
(i) The keyboard
(ii) The mouse
(iii) The scanner
(iv) The touch screen
(v) The graphics/digitizing tables
(vi) The joystick
(vii) The trackball
(viii) CD-ROM
(ix) Optical Mark Reader
(x) Optical Character Reader
(xi) Magnetic Ink Character Reader
(xii) Disk Drive
(xiii) Tape Deck
(ix) Card Reader
THE OUTPUT UNIT:
Output unit transmits result to computer user. Output unit displays the result of data that have been processed. On the other hand, output unit provides the medium by which results of computer operations on input data are transmitted to the computer user. An output unit consists of an output device and an output media. Basically output device are used to move data and information out of the computer’s primary memory.
Example of output devices are;
1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Computer Output on Microfilm (COM)
4. Plotter
5. Digital voice
6. LCD/LED
7. Tape Deck
8. Disk Drive
9. CD Writer
THE SECONDARY STORAGE UNIT
This is the computer storage unit where data and information are kept outside the computer primary memory. The secondary storage otherwise known as backing storage is used for mass storage of computer programs, data or files. That is, those programs and files that are not currently being processed but which will be transferred to the primary memory when required.
The followings among others are examples of secondary storage;
v Magnetic tape unit
v Magnetic disk unit
v Magnetic diskette unit
v Optical disk unit
v Hard disk (non- removable)
v Floppy disk (removable)
v Flash drive
STORAGE DEVICES
There are several devices which could be used as backing storage devices
OPTICAL DISK UNIT AND OPTICAL DISK
They are often called laser disks because a laser beam is used to read or write to them
There are three types in use presently, all of which make use of laser to read or write data. The main purpose is to store huge amount of data in a computer environment. The four types for our purpose of learning are:
(a) CD-ROM
(b) WORM
(c) EO
(d) MO
(e) DVD.
CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory)
The CD-ROM is at time called O-ROM meaning Optical Read-Only Memory. The compact disk units are devices used for reading pre-recorded data on the CD-ROM. Pre-recorded data can be read by the use of a laser moving at a low intensity and detecting the pattern of ray of light reflecting from its beam on the surface of the disk as the CD rotates on a turntable device. In reality they work in the same manner as the domestic audio compact disk. There are also some systems that make use of sound and data CD at the same time.
Some CDs are capable of holding up to 660 megabytes of data as backups for a computer system. The access speed is however slower than the magnetic disk, this is due to the mass production rate of the CD and also the technology is relatively new. As time progresses, CD manufacturers are planning for a faster device.
CD-ROM, have “jukebox” option, a term borrowed from the disco tech and club houses. Several CD’s can be loaded into jukebox and with the control of a software, the system gains access to a large amount of data simultaneously.
CD are useful in many aspects such as the provision of catalog, dictionaries and directories, reference file, graphical images and sounds, software font descriptions.
WORM (Write once read many)
They are akin to a fixed disk unit, but data are written by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disk by means of a high-resolution, high-precision laser beam. The WORM disks are nevertheless exchangeable unlike the fixed magnetic disk.
They are also similar in stricture to the CD with surfaces of about 40,000 tracks each of which is further subdivided into 25 sectors with a total storage capacity approximating 1 gigabyte (1/1000,000,000 bytes) it takes longer time to manufacture WORM unlike CD’s which are in mass production hence they are more reliable, dependable and prone to minimal data loss and in the future they may be made to become reusable. Their transfer and access rate is also slower than a magnetic disk. Their lack of eras ability at the moment is advantageous for one reason, since a WORM disk is containing vital information, for instance in a bank, such information provide an indestructible audit trial and are also suitable for office storage system thereby avoiding a mass junk of paper work.
12” WORM drives are available with storage capacity close to 12.5 GB and having better transfer rate. Where a jukebox is fitted with about 6 WORM disks. The system is capable of handling up to 27 GB with cartridge exchange time of approximately 2.5 seconds.
E.O (Erasable Optical)
They have a casing similar to 3.5” floppy and of the same size as CD. Their capacity is about 650 megabytes. As their name suggest, they can be reused over and over again which makes them advantageous them conventional CDs and WORMs.
MO (MAGNETO-OPTICAL DISKS)
It is an optical disk where the surface is magnetically coated and these magnetic materials change its polarity when heated to write on the disk, a high powered laser beam heats a tiny spot in the magnetic medium that allows it to accept magnetic patterns representing data. To read data from the media, a lower-powered light beam is passed through the surface of the disk and the data transferred from the medium to memory or another media. MO is erasable and re-writeable disk cable of being used over a million times.
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL
They provide the following advantages be it the CD-ROM, WORM, EO, MO or DVD disk.
(a) Offers potential for combining data, video and audio information on a single medium.
(b) Provides vast amount of storage capabilities
(c) Permit the removal of disk from drive which simplifies security and data backup procedure and encourages the collection of databases.
THE PROCESSOR UNIT
The purpose of the computer processor is to provide a CPU which interprets instruction codes received from memory and to perform arithmetic, logic and control operation on data stored in a number of registers, and control information to and from modules connected to the CPU.
THE CONTROL UNIT
This is an integral part of the processor (CPU). All the functions of the CPU are coordinated by this unit which interprets and carries out the instruction contained in a program. It controls, directs, monitors and co-ordinate all activities within the CPU. It is the master dispatcher of the computer system.
THE ARITHMETIC/ LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
This is the circuitry system for performing arithmetic operations (i.e. additions, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponential); as well as logical operations (i.e. AND, OR, NOR, COMPARE etc.)
THE BUSES
A group of wires (paths) through which binary information (instruction, data, addresses and control information)) is transferred one bit at a time among registers in the circuit are called buses.
THE CLOCK
Clock is an integral part of the processor being used by the processors to generate multiphase clock pulse that provide timing and control for internal function of the processor.
THE REGISTERS
This is a group of memory unit that provides temporary storage for all the data/ information being processed, as well as the software directing the processing. It is also used to hold the immediately needed instructions or data. Every communication of any two units of the computer system passes through the primary memory unit.
The primary memory unit is otherwise known as internal memory or internal storage or main memory can be divided into two parts namely:
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM: This is the portion of the computer primary memory that stores users’ information or data. The information can be retrieved for use, modified or even erased.
It is otherwise known as volatile memory because when there is power failure data stored RAM is lost.
The capacity of RAM may be enhanced on site if necessary. A computer user has complete access to the contents of primary memory (RAM).
ROM: This is the second portion of the computer primary memory. It is used for storing permanent information for instance, system information. This information is stored at the manufacturing time and once stored information can only be retrieved for use, it cannot be modified or erased.
User has no access to the content of the ROM, he/ she can only read it but cannot write into it. ROM is much cheaper on a cost - per - bit basis than RAM. ROM is non volatile i.e. the information stored on ROM is not lost even if there is power failure. Therefore, it is also known as a non volatile memory.
THE SOFTWARE SYSTEM
Computer needs clear- cut instruction to tell it (computer) what to do, how to do it and when to do it, and when to do it. Set of instructions to carry out these functions is called a program.
A group of such programs that are put into a computer to operate and control its activities is called Software.
CLASIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The computer software could be divided into two major groups namely:
(a) System software and
(b) Application software.
System software- These refer to the suite of programs that facilitate the optional use of the hardware system and or provide suitable environment for the writing, editing, debugging, testing and running of user programs. They are set of programs written to manage and control the performance of the computer by the manufacturer. Examples include;
- The operating system O/S;
- Language processors;
- Utility software etc.
Application Software- These are program designed to solve problem of specific nature. The computer manufacturer could either apply it or in some cases the users produce their own application program called USER PROGRAM. Hence, application software sub divided into two classes namely; Generalized and User- defined software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These are programs developed to make computers better adapted to the need of their users. This can further be divided into:
Operating system
Development software.
Utility software
Program Language Translator
Performance
Communication / Network software
Database Management Software
It is important to note here that in all above, only the first three divisions is relevant to Micro Computer Operation.
1. OPERATING SYSTEM:
Is the most important software system, it is a collection of program which controls the operation of the computer system.
Operating system is the master control program that supervises all other computer programs running on a computer.
It is responsible for the interpretation of commands, controlling inputs and output and operating the disk drives.
Functions of Operating system are:
Ø It does memory Management
Ø It does the file Management
Ø It does the processor Management
Ø It manages the peripherals devices (i.e. input/output devices).
Ø Resource sharing
Ø Facilitates coding, design and debugging of users programs.
Ø Controls input / Output operations
Ø Protection and error handling
Ø Program interaction
Ø Program control
Ø Device Management
Ø Provide an interface between the computer hardware and user of the computer system.
Ø Accounting of computer resources
Every computer system needs an operating system (control program) to start it up. Many operating systems are available today for different types of computers
Types of Operating system;
In computer system environment, the operating system could be classified basically into three classes. Stated below are the three classes:
a) Single-user systems- This kind of operating systems makes the machine available for only one user at a time. Examples are:
- Ms-DOS:- micro-soft disk operating system
- PC-DOS:- personal computer operating system
- CP/M:- control program for microcomputer
- OS/2:- operating system 2
b) Multi- user System- This is another class of operating system that is capable of managing and coordinating the hardware resources of multi-user computer systems.
The multi-user is an environment where many users through terminal share a computer called the “host”. Examples are:
- XENIX
- PC-MOS
- UNIX
- LINUX etc.
c) Network – In this class of operating systems, computer are fully or semi-independent connected together. With this connection, various are being shared by the connected systems. Examples includes:
- RPT-NET
- Window NT
- Novell network
- Microsoft LAN manager
- UNIX
- LINUX
2. DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
This is the software that enables the user to develop system and application software. This includes translators (i.e. interpreters, compilers and assemblers); microprocessor and linker loader example are assemblers, compilers and interpreter.
Examples of development software:
1. Translator: This is a program that takes as an input a program written in one programming language (the sources language) and produces as an output a program in another language (the object or target language).
2. Assembler: This is a translator that converts a program written in symbolic or mnemonic form (i.e. in an assembly language) into another language in machine code. Here, the source language is in assembly language and the target language is machine code.
3. Compiler: This is the general term used for programs that enables computer user(s) to perform specific tasks or jobs such as solving equations, producing payroll, solving business problems and solving scientific problems etc.
3. UTILITIES OR SERVICE PROGRAMS
Utility Software- this is a set of commonly used program in data processing department also called service or general- purpose programs. They are programs supplied by the manufacturer of the computer for performing specific tasks. They perform some of the more common daily operations or routines such as sorting, merging, copying etc. Often, the user or the programmer may write his own program to achieve target goals
The service programs include:
Sort/ merge utilities
Sorting- provides certain parameter and request the machine to arrange a set of records into a certain order (ascending or descending) using some keys.These are programs used to sort or merge records or files into a specified order. A sort program may be used to arrange records in a file in a particular order. That is, ordered in, descending or ascending sequence of a unique attribute of the records. While a merge program is used for merging related records in a file or merging related files.
Copy utilities
These are programs used for copying the contents of one file into another. They could also be used to transfer the contents of a file from one storage medium to another. It makes an exact copy of a file from one medium to another lot of the same medium e.g. copy from one area of disk pack to another area.
File conversion- This covers data transfer from any medium to another making an exact copy or simultaneously editing and validating. For example, a copy from a machine tapes to a disk.
Editors
Editors are programs used for updating the records in a file. That is, they are used for entering and correcting texts, programs and data files
File maintenance utilities
These are program specifically used for updating files, it enables user to insert and delete records into or from sequential files. It allows user to rename files and amend standing data.
Debuggers
These are programs used for removing errors or bugs from a program.
Dump utilities/ Routines
Dump utilities are programs used mostly when errors occur in the execution of a program. It is used to copy the content of main memory onto the output devices which may be displayed on the screen or printed out to find out the problem areas of the program. This program transfers a working program and its data into a backing storage at regular intervals from where the program can be loaded using a restart program.
Formatting unities
These are programs specifically used to prepare secondary storage devices for use. Example, a diskette must be formatted (preparing a new disk for use) before being used on a computer.
Emulators
Emulators are special programs that permit the object program generated on one computer to be executed on a different computer entirely
File re- organization- It involves cleaning the computer memory by re organizing the cylinder and bucket indexes which transfer displayed records back into their home buckets.
Housekeeping Operation- These include programs to clear off storage, writing file labels, up dating common data. They are not involved in solving the problem at hand. They are operations that must be performed before and after actual processing.
Tracing Routines- This dump the content of the main store during program testing to facilitate error detection
Library programs- A given problem usually can be broken down into sub-problems. The solution to those sub-problems put together provides solution to the original problem. A set of programs for such common sub-problems written and stored in computer backing storage is called a library of programs. A user requests the use of any such programs through a command to the O/S.
4. LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
The early programmers faced the difficulty of having to writes programs in the language of the computer or languages very similar to that of the computer which are quite different from their own languages (English, French etc), thereby having problems with error corrections and fluency.
With these difficulties in mind and the advance in technology it became necessary to device languages similar to our own called high programs and providing another program called language translator that translates these programs from high level language to the language to the computer
The hierarchies of the languages are as follows;
a) Machine language.
b) low level language
c) high level language
a. Machine language: consists of series of binary numbers (digit consisting of zeros (o) and ones (1), which is the language the computer understands.
Advantages of Machine language
- Machine language has a faster execution time as it is composed of Os and 1s which is to the language of the computer.
- It doesn’t require interpreter or a compiler.
Disadvantages
- It is tedious and laborious to write. It is time consuming.
- It is disadvantageous because it occupies a lot of memory space.
- The programmer is forced to keep track of storage locations of data and instructions.
b. Low level language: a low language is a machine oriented language consisting of symbolic codes in which instructions correspond or resemble the machine languages. The language is machine dependent; the structure varies from one machine to another. e.g. Assembly language
Advantage of Assembly language
1. It is more comprehensive to human beings than the machine language.
2. It does not consume memory space.
3. It is easier to write compared to machine language
Disadvantages
1. Assembly language is machine dependent. That is the structure varies from machine to machine
2. Execution time is not fast as it has to be converted to machine code before execution.
c. High level language: this is a procedure or problem oriented language which is a restricted form of the natural language (our own language) used in programming. Such languages include basic (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), FORTRAN (Formula Translation), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), ALGOL (Algorithmic Language), PL/1 (Programming Language1), RPG (Report Program Generator), PASCAL etc
Advantages of high level language
There is ease of understanding, and is generally easier to read, write, and correct.
Most high level language is portable, that is the programs run on a variety of machines. (not machine dependent).
Disadvantages
They require a compiler to translate them to machine codes.
much time is spent on compilation than in other languages
Programs written in other programming languages beside the machine language are called source programs. However, the language translator, as its name implies translate programs from one language to another. A language is a set of notation used for communications. Three examples of classes of language translator are:
Assemblers- A language is a set of notation using symbols or mnemonics that are easily readable to write computer programs. It is a computer program that accepts a source program in assembly language program and translates to object program. The source program translated is a low-level language. Simply put; it is a program that translates programs written in assemble language into machine code.
Interpreters- It is a program that accepts a program in a source language, reads, translates and executes it line into machine language. Interpreter is a program which translates the source program into machine language statement. It translates statement and executes it before taking on the next statement.
Compilers- A compiler is a computer program that accepts a source program in one high level language read and translates the entire user’s program into an equivalent program in machine language called the object program. It is program that translates the whole source program into machine code or language. That is, it accepts the whole source program as input and products the object program which is the compiled or translated version of the source program, the output before executing the program.
The stages in compilation include:
(a) Lexical analysis
(b) Syntax analysis
(c) Semantic analysis
(d) Intermediate analysis
(e) Code generation
For each high- level language there is a different complier. We can therefore talk about COBOL complier, FORTRAN Complier etc.
The distinction between an interpreter and a compiler is that a compiler does not execute the statements during the process of translation like the interpreter. The object code thus produced after compilation can be executed the or sometimes in the future; whereas the whole process of translation is repeated in the case of the interpreter each time the program is to be run. Consider a prize giving day in a secondary school where there are Hausa and Yoruba in attendance who have no idea of English language, and addresses would be delivered in English. The interpreter as a translator will be translating to them sentence by sentence as the speech goes, while the compiler would produce a translated version of the speech in the different languages for the people, which they could read there and or taken home for future purposes without looking for a translator each time they want to read it.
5. PREFORMANCE
Monitoring software is use to monitor, analyze, and report on the performance of the computer system and its components. This software provides such information as the percentage of the processor utilization and the number of disk accesses during any given period of time. This type of information enables the operator to make the most efficient use of hardware resources, as may be necessary.
6. COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE
This is the software that controls the flow of data to and from remote locations.
SOFTWARE GENERATIONS
Software generations refer to the generations/developmental stages of the programming languages.
First generation; this is the machine language. It is the forerunner of all programming languages consisting of binary digits (0, 1). This generation is the late 40’s.
Second generation; this is the assembly language (low level language) consisting of abbreviated words (mnemonics.) it makes programming much easier than the first generation. In this generation, there is need to know what is happening where, and how within the system. This generation is the early 50’s
third generation; this consists of the high- level languages where programming is done in languages very close to our own, e.g. English, French etc. this generation is the late 60s emphasis is laid on what is happening inside the computer.
Fourth generation; there are the application generators that automate the routines involved in programming. There features include;
(a) setting up data entry screens
(b) creating files
(c) querying data
(d) Report generation.
Examples are the database packages (Dbase), spread sheet, and graphics packages.
(5) Fifth generation; these are declarative language, where programmer state the problem and the language sorts out the solution. The fifth generation language involves massive databases on a particular subject or field where query facilities and enquiries are made in natural languages. Such systems are called expect systems. An example of the language is Turbo PROLOG, (Programming in Logic) and LISP (List processing).
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application Software: - These are programs use to solve the user problems, they are technically called problem – oriented software which allows a computer to be used for a specific problem. These programs may be provided by the computer manufacturer or supplier, but in many cases the users produce their own application program called user programs.
A good example is a payroll program designed to work out workers salaries or wages. Such a program can not be used to control the stock of inventory and likewise a stock control program can not be used to prepare workers salaries. Thus, they are restricted to specific problem or application area. Hence, application software sub divided into two classes namely;
- Generalized software / Application Packages
- User- defined software/ User’s Program
1. Generalized software/ Application Packages
These are ready- made program written on a standardized way of application, which are common to many users. They are general in approach because they are written, bearing in mind that they are open to many users. They are generalized set of programs which can be bought in a ready-made form, from computer shops. The followings are common examples:
(1) Word processing packages- Examples are:
Ms-word, Word perfect, Word star, Display writer, Professional writer, LOTUS manuscript, LOCO script, MM advantage II etc.
(2) Spreadsheet packages- A spreadsheet is sheet of paper rule into a grid of rows and columns on which you can do financial calculations. A spreadsheet calculator program does exactly the same thing on the screen of your computer. Examples are LOTUS 1-2-3, Supercalc, Ms Multiplan, Ms-Excel, Informix, VP Planner etc.
(3) Integrated Packages- They are programs or packages that perform a variety of different processing operations using data that is compatible with whatever operation is being carried out. They perform a number of operations like word processing; data base management and spread sheeting. Examples are: Enable, Office Writer, Logistic Symphony, Framework, Ability, Smart ware II, Microsoft Works V2 etc.
(4) Graphic Packages- These are packages that enable you to bring out images diagrams and pictures. Examples are PM, PM Plus, Graph-writer.
(5) Database Packages- It is software for designing, setting up and subsequently managing a database. (A database is an organized collection of data that allows for modification taking care of different users view). Examples are: Dbase III, IV, Foxbase, Rbase data Perfect, Paradox III, Revelation advanced etc.
(6) Statistical Packages- These are packages that can be used to solve statistical problem e.g. Stat graphics SPSS etc.
(7) Desktop Publishing– these are packages that can be used to produce books, document in standard form because of its different fonts. Examples are Pagemaker, Ventura, Fontasey, Brush Xerox, Formbase, News Master II, Dbase Publisher.
(8) Games Packages- These are packages that contain a lot of games for children and adult. Examples are chess, scrabbles, monopoly, tune trivia, star trek 2, soccer game, War Game etc.
(9) Communication Packages- Examples are carbon plus, SAGE, Chit Chaf, Data Soft, Crosstalk etc.
There are so many packages around, virtually for every field of study but these are just to mention few of them. Advantages of these packages includes quick and cheaper implementation which is time saving, minimum tune for its design, they have been tested and proven to be correct, they accompanied by full documentation and are also very portable.
2. User’s program
This is a suite of program written by programmers, or computer users required for the operation of their individual business or tasks. Example is a payroll packages develop for salary operation of a particular company.
Social implications of computerization:
(i) Computers are used in almost every field of business. In investment, computers are used to get up-to-the-minute information on stocks and bonds and to make split-second buy and sell-decisions. Banks use computers to process the huge amount of cheques and credit card transactions that take place daily. In manufacturing computers are used to design new products, control-manufacturing equipment, and regulate inventory and raw materials. Computer are used to automatically place orders, alert customers when there are possible stock outs and help managers control every aspect of a manufacturing operation. Computerized robots are used to paint weld faster and attach parts along the assembly line. Computer can also be used in personnel management, payroll, accounting, security procedures, etc
(ii) The growth of the computer information industry has created a vast and varied number of jobs-both for computer professional and computer-literate users. Computer professionals are now employer as computer programmers, system analysts, system engineers, etc
The employment picture for users is also good; many employers now require some degree of computer competency as a prerequisite for employment. Computers are becoming standard business tools for all employees- from the managing director of the company to the deans in the typing pool.
(iii) The modern day managers using computers as tools are becoming more and more efficient. Decisions that are subject to rules can be automated so that managers can use computers to take such decisions. Also there are series of software that can be used to support decision-making. The software is known as Decision Support Systems (DSS). Such decision support systems can be used in semi-structure or unstructured decisions. Excel, lotus 1-2-3, office works are examples of such software, the software are good for “What if analysis”.
(iv) Bank customers also enjoy the advantages of computerization in the banking industry. They no longer spend long hours to transact business. The use of MICR cheques and equipment ensures prompt attention in the banks. Account balances can be checked in any branch of the customer’s bank. There is no need to go about with large amount of money. The electronics funds transfer has taken care of that life is safer. Transactions in retail stores, supermarkets, etc can be done with credit cards. Automated teller machines (ATMS) can be used to deposit and withdraw cash from one’s account at any time of the day without entering the banking halls.
Users have to be trained, the main purpose of this is to ensure that existing staffs are able to perform effectively in their current jobs, and where required, be able to pursue other roles in the organization. Training is linked with development. Training and development can take a number of forms such as:
1. Mistral training for new employees
2. Skills training to provide new skills for a proposed job
3. Skills development to upgrade an employees skills is a gives area
4. Team building: - to provide the appropriate vehicle for individual improvement in team work.
Training and development can be carried out in many ways such as the participation in activities such as formal courses, short courses, seminars, projects, secondments, team working, etc.
Bank/ Organizations using it are to plan their business and re-engineer their business processes by abandoning functional specialization. Such Bank/ Organization became potentially much more focused around the key decision needs of the business: these concerned with meeting the needs of the customer.
PART III
FACILITIES FOR COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION ACCESS
INTRODUCTION INTERNET
The internet is a network of network, a society of interconnected computer, spanning the entire globe. The connection is however made possible over telephone lines and recently cable modem, fiber optic cable which is just like ordinary telephone cable like the type you use to access to any website throughout the world. The word “Internet” simply means the “world assemblage”, which connect different types of computer together basically in private, government, academic and individuals to generate particular information. When we are discussing this topic, we are talking about the actual shortcut of a “center area” that combined the worldwide information technology together and distribute to any users that search for them in distinctive ways. When you start using the internet, you gradually becoming a part of the network where you can have access to the wealth of information available from different areas on the network and of course being in a position to put your own information or advert on the network for other people to access.
Network simply means the combination of lines and nodes. The line refers to as the path along which makes resources flow, while nodes means the point where lines intersect transferring resources to new lines. Network can also be defined as a number of local computers that are connected in such a way that they can share information and resources together and supply to the users as requested for.
Internet connects computer together through local area network (LAN), which is used to describe a set of computers that are connected close to one another in such a manner that they can share the same software e.g. System unit or CPU Printer, Scanner etc. at a time
The Internet is the name given to technology that allows any computer with a telecommunication to exchange information with any other suitable equipped computer. The date sources and computers around the world are connected to one another through the internet. Alternatively, the internet is not just date. It is an international community of people who share information, interact and communicate. From the point of its users, the internet is a vast collection of resources people, information multi-media. Through the internet the world has been reduced to a global village. It is pertinent to note that the internet is not run by any organization, and it is not owned by any organization. Instead, people grow the internet when they build computer networks and link their networks to another.
Networking and Interactive Processing
The two principal blocks that facilitate development and the use of MIS are DBMS and Telecommunications. The former makes data integration possible, while the latter brings information closer to the end users, who constitute nodes in a telecommunication network. The notion of telecommunications implies that some geographical distance exists between the computer site and the users' locations and that data are electronically transmitted between them. Remote applications may be executed between two floors in the same building, two offices in the same city, two offices on the same continent, or two places on opposite sides of the globe (Martin, 1990).
WORLD WIDE WEB OR WESITE
THE MEANING
World Wide-Web means a data that operate in the internet which allows viewing texts and graphics on the internet. The world wide-web is popularly called web or website and the abbreviation is “www”. The popular web server intermediary is Internet Solution Provider (ISP).
As mentioned earlier, the one of the most popular features of the web is that, the pages are usually lined in such a manner as to enable a user jump one pages to another by clicking a specific and special texts or graphics which lead to another web pages which are commonly called lines, hotmail or hypertexts.
They are usually underlined and displayed in different colours that other text that do not links.
Intranet Technology
An intranet is an internal organization network based on internet technology that can provide access to data across the enterprises. It uses the existing company network infrastructure along with internet connectivity standards and software developed for the World Wide Web. Intranets can create network applications that can run on many different kinds of computers through out the organization. The major difference between the web and an intranet is that while the web is normally protected and prevented from public access.
Extranet Technology
An extranet is a private intranet that is accessible to selected outsiders. Some firms are following people and organization from the outside to have limited access to their intranets. For example, authorized buyers could dial into a portion of a company’s intranet from the public internet to obtain information about the cost and features of its products.
Extranet are essentially useful for linking organizations with customers or business partners while many are being used for providing product availability, pricing and shipment data.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)
The internet has become the most important e-mail system in the world because it connects so many people from allover the world. Private individuals typically use internet e-mail facilities to keep in touch with friends. Organizations use it to facilitate communications between employees and between offices, to communicate with suppliers, and keep in touch with outside world.
Researchers use this facility to share ideas, information, even documents. E-mail over the internet has also made possible many collaborative research and writing projects even though the participants are thousand of miles apart. With proper software, the user will find it easy to attach document and files when sending a message to someone or to broadcast a message to a predefined group.
The figure illustrates the components of an internet e-mail address.
Domain name
godwinoye@starrygold.edu.ng
Individual or Host Function Location
Organization name Computer
//
Terminology
The Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc. In contrast, the Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is one of the services accessible via the Internet, along with various others including e-mail, file sharing, online gaming and others described below.
Internet and the workplace
The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and Web applications.
The Internet viewed on mobile devices
The Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere there is a cellular network supporting that device's technology.
Within the limitations imposed by the small screen and other limited facilities of such a pocket-sized device, all the services of the Internet, including email and web browsing, may be available in this way. Service providers may restrict the range of these services and charges for data access may be significant, compared to home usage.
Relevant Of Internet
According to Oladejo M. O (2007)
1. It serves as a world library to obtain useful information
2. Cheap medium of advertisement
3. It provides means for education
4. Quick and fast means for education
5. Medium for political campaign
6. Its provides job opportunities for applicants
7. Potential research base for students and academics.
8. It provides basics for distance leaning
9. On-line banking services is possible
10. Its provides basis for on-line shopping
11. On-line payment is made possible
12. It’s a source of entertainment
13. Quick and fast means of business transactions
Web Browser
A browser is a computer program that resides on your computer enabling you to use the computer to view world wide web (www) documents and access the internet taking advantage of text formatting, hypertext, hypertext links, images, sound, motion, and other features. Netscape and internet explorer are currently the leading “graphical browsers” in the world.
Examples of Web Browsers
- Netscape
- Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Opera
- Mac web etc.
Searching the web for Information
Information can be searched for through:
1. Search directories, or
2. Search engines.
Search Directories: This is a website organized by topic and sub-topics i.e searching may be by topics or key words examples are:
- http://www.starrygold.com
- http://www.webdirectory.com
- http://www.yahoo.com
- http://www.exite.com
Search Engine: is a website designed to perform search on the net for a topic. It usually comes from a broader pool. Common search engines: e.g
- http://www.google.com
- http://www.altavisa.digital.com
- http://www.iycos.com
- http://www.whowhere.com
- Bebcrawer.com
- Mama.com
- Ask.com
Services available on the Internet
- Electronic mail
- Browsing: to view information and documents in the Internet
- New group: people with common interest can share idea and knowledge
- File Transfer Protocol: to download information from the desired sources
- www links to all documents and the internet
- Teleconferencing: to hold talk between people at different locations.
- Gopher space: it gives access to body of information like www.
- Telnet: allows logging into remote computer and using it as if our machine is directly connected to it so as to search directories and running other programs.
Getting connected to the Internet
The followings requirements must be met before user can get facility on the internet
(Oladejo 2007)
1. A computer system
2. A modem or other communication links
3. Communication software
4. An account with Internet service provide with adequate bandwidth and infrastructure.
Common uses of the Internet (According to Wikipedia online resources)
- E-mail
- The World Wide Web
- Remote access
- File sharing
- Collaboration
- Voice telephony (VoIP)
- Streaming media
- Political organization and censorship
- Leisure activities
- Complex architecture
- Marketing
E-mail
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it can be important to distinguish between Internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of both the sender's and the recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even tampered with by third parties, if anyone considers it important enough. Purely internal or intranet mail systems, where the information never leaves the corporate or organization's network, are much more secure, although in any organization there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and occasionally accessing, the e-mail of other employees not addressed to them.
The World Wide Web
Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (or just the Web) interchangeably, but, as discussed above, the two terms are not synonymous.
The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked documents, images and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the web servers and other machines that store originals, and cached copies, of these resources to deliver them as required using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). HTTP is only one of the communication protocols used on the Internet.
Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data.
Software products that can access the resources of the Web are correctly termed user agents. In normal use, web browsers, such as Internet Explorer and Firefox, access web pages and allow users to navigate from one to another via hyperlinks. Web documents may contain almost any combination of computer data including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.
Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.
Using the Web, it is also easier than ever before for individuals and organisations to publish ideas and information to an extremely large audience. Anyone can find ways to publish a web page, a blog or build a website for very little initial cost. Publishing and maintaining large, professional websites full of attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however.
Many individuals and some companies and groups use "web logs" or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organisations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.
Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and
Remote access
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.
This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice.
An office worker away from his desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives the worker complete access to all of his or her normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while away from the office.
This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into its employees' homes; this has been the source of some notable security breaches, but also provides security for the workers.
Collaboration
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and test, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place, even among niche interests. An example of this is the free software movement in software development, which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly known as Netscape Communicator and StarOffice). Films such as Zeitgeist, Loose Change and Endgame have had extensive coverage on the Internet, while being virtually ignored in the mainstream media.
Internet "chat", whether in the form of IRC "chat rooms" or channels, or via instant messaging systems, allow colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way when working at their computers during the day. Messages can be sent and viewed even more quickly and conveniently than via e-mail. Extension to these systems may allow files to be exchanged, "whiteboard" drawings to be shared as well as voice and video contact between team members.
Version control systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents without either accidentally overwriting each other's work or having members wait until they get "sent" documents to be able to add their thoughts and changes.
File sharing
A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks.
In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed—hopefully fully encrypted—across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests.
These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.
Internet collaboration technology enables business and project teams to share documents, calendars and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing.
Streaming media
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet "feeds" of their live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialized, technical webcasts. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—material is first downloaded in full and then may be played back on a computer or shifted to a digital audio player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material on a worldwide basis.
Voice telephony (VoIP)
VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the instant messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL.
Thus, VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP modems are now available that eliminate the need for a PC.
Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.
Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Traditional phones are line-powered and operate during a power failure; VoIP does not do so without a backup power source for the electronics.
Most VoIP providers offer unlimited national calling, but the direction in VoIP is clearly toward global coverage with unlimited minutes for a low monthly fee.
VoIP has also become increasingly popular within the gaming world, as a form of communication between players. Popular gaming VoIP clients include Ventrilo and Teamspeak, and there are others available also. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 also offer VoIP chat features.
Social impact
The Internet has made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access.
Social networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace have created a new form of socialization and interaction. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of items to their personal pages, to indicate common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find a large circle of existing acquaintances, especially if a site allows users to utilize their real names, and to allow communication among large existing groups of people.
Sites like meetup.com exist to allow wider announcement of groups which may exist mainly for face-to-face meetings, but which may have a variety of minor interactions over their group's site at meetup.org, or other similar sites.
Political organization and censorship
In democratic societies, the Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States became famous for its ability to generate donations via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a whole new method of organizing, in order to carry out Internet activism.
Some governments, such as those of Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet, especially political and religious content. This is accomplished through software that filters domains and content so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention.
Leisure activities
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas.
Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over copyright laws than others.
Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.
People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites like MySpace, Facebook and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment.
The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access their files, folders, and settings via the Internet.
Complex architecture
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system". The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity. Further adding to the complexity of the Internet is the ability of more than one computer to use the Internet through only one node, thus creating the possibility for a very deep and hierarchal sub-network that can theoretically be extended infinitely (disregarding the programmatic limitations of the IPv4 protocol). However, since principles of this architecture date back to the 1960s, it might not be a solution best suited to modern needs, and thus the possibility of developing alternative structures is currently being looked into.
Marketing
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost advertising and commerce through the Internet, also known as e-commerce. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast number of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized shopping—for example; a person can order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people more so than any other advertising medium.
Examples of personalized marketing include online communities such as MySpace, Friendster, Orkut, Facebook and others which thousands of Internet users join to advertise themselves and make friends online. Many of these users are young teens and adolescents ranging from 13 to 25 years old. In turn, when they advertise themselves they advertise interests and hobbies, which online marketing companies can use as information as to what those users will purchase online, and advertise their own companies' products to those users.
Possible weaknesses of the Interest
- High cost of installation
- Connectivity problems by internet service providers
- High rate of data piracy
- Loss of information confidentiality
- Lack of originality of information since user can only print from the net
- High level of cyber crime of defrauding unsuspecting public on the net
- Display of some moral hazard like entertainment where blue films that promote sexual vices can be easily down loaded.
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
TO BANKING
ELECTRONIC BANKING
DEFINITION
Electronic banking, also known as electronics fund transfer (EFT), uses computer and electronics technology as a substitute for checks and other paper transactions. ETFS are initiated through devices like cards or codes that let you, or those you authorized, access your account. Many financial institutions use ATM or debit cards and Personal Identifications Numbers (PINS) for this purpose. Some use other forms of debit cards such as those that require, at the most, your signature or a scan.
E-Banking (electronics banking), to many customers, means 24-hour access to cash through an automated teller machine (ATM) or Direct Deposit of paychecks into checking or savings accounts. But electronics banking now involves many different types of transaction.
E-BANKING SERVICES
EFT/E-banking offers several services that consumer many find practical:
1. Automated Teller Machine or 24-hour Tellers are electronic terminals that let you bank almost any time. To withdraw cash, make deposits, or transfer funds between accounts, you generally insert an ATM card and enter your PIN. Some financial institutions and ATM owners charge a fee, particularly to consumers who don’t have account with them or on transaction at remote locations. Generally ATMS tell you they charge a fee and its amount on or at the terminal screen before you complete the transaction.
2. Direct Deposit, especially as it operates in the USA, lets you authorize specific deposits, such as paychecks and Social Security Checks, to your account on a regular basis. You also may pre-authorize direct withdrawals so that recurring bills such as insurance premiums, mortgages, and utility bills, are paid automatically.
3. Pay-By-Phone Systems let you call your financial institution with instructions to pay certain bills or to transfer funds between accounts. You must have an agreement with the institution to make such transfer.
4. Personal Computer Banking lets you handle many banking transactions via your personal computer. For instance, you may use your computer to view your account balance, request transfer between accounts and pay bills electronically.
5. Point-of-Sale Transfer let you pay for purchase with a debit card which also may be your ATM card. The process is fast and easy, a debit card purchase transfers money-fairly quickly-from your bank account to the store’s account.
6. Electronic Check Conversion converts paper check into an electronics payment at the point of sale or elsewhere, such as when a company receives your check in the mail. In a store, when you give your check to a store cashier, the check is processed through an electronic system that captures your banking information and the amount of the check. Once the check is processed, you’re asked to sign a receipt of authorizing the merchant to present the checks to your bank electronically and deposit the funds into the merchant’s account. You get a receipt of the electronics transaction for your records. When your check has been processed and returned to you by the merchant, it should be voided or marked by the merchant so that it can’t be used again.
E-COMMERCE
Electronics Commerce is the process of doing business electronically. It involves the automation of a variety of business-to-business and business-to-consumer transactions through reliable and secure connections, especially the internet.
Electronic Commerce (EC) is a composite of technologies, processed and business strategies that foster the instant exchange of information within and between organizations. EC strengthens relationships with buyers, makes it easier to attract new customers, improves (and in some cases reinvents) customer responsiveness, and opens new markets on a global scale.
Electronics commerce is a range of application that extend the core business activities of the enterprises into a virtual electronics community that is shared with customers, suppliers, business partners, employees, and prospects.
USING COMPUTER FOR COMMUNICATION
Face to face has been the original means of communicating between persons. There was a time also when a town crier was relied upon to inform persons in a village about anything, and a gun was fired across a valley to pass information from one village to the other. But through time, humanity developed, and so telephones for person to person communication, the radio and TV also came for the purposes of mass communication. While the telephone allowed two-way discussions between persons, radio and TV was meant to be new way – to the listener. The letter postage service also came, then telegram, telex and fax systems as means of communication between persons. For many years, the world was contented with these methods.
But computers soon arrived and became very cheap. Many ways of using it were developed to take advantage of its speed of operation. Data communication has been one key area that came about as a result of the marriage of computers with communication. The fruitful union meant that when two or more computers are connected on the telephone network, whatever is contained (stored) in each machine can be sent in a matter of seconds to the others. Distance is immaterial, once the location in which each computer is located is connected by phone.
Furthermore, the telephone was initially meant for voice contact with the other person, but now virtually anything- a letter, a book, photograph, X-ray films etc. can be transmitted by computers over the telecommunication network. And while the normal telephone is one to one, the data in one machine can be sent simultaneously to unlimited number of others.
Benefits of data communication through the use of computers are;
1. E-Mail services
2. Bulletin Board Service (BBS) and
3. Internet
4. Telepresence, Telegal, Teleducation, Telmedine, Telemarketing,
DATA PROCESSING CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION
Data versus Information
Data refers to raw, unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of facts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records.
Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Information involves the communication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate irrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of data may constitute information in a specific context; for example, when you want to contact your friend, his or her telephone number is a piece of information; otherwise, it is just one element of data in the telephone directory.
Computers have made the processing function much easier. Large quantities of data can be processed quickly through computers aiding in the conversion of data to information. Raw data enter the system and are transformed into the system's output, that is, information to support managers in their decision making.
Attributes of quality Information
A quality Information must possess the following attributes:
It must be Accurate
It must be Timely
It must be Relevant
It must be Up – to Date
It must be clear
It must be concise
It must be simple-easily understandable
It must be complete and
It must be focused.
Its cost must not be more than its benefit
It must be well presented
DATA PROCESSING
Data processing is the capture, storage and processing of data for the purpose of transforming them into information, useful for decision-making.
Method of data processing
1. Manual data processing
2. Mechanical / electro- mechanical data processing
3. Electronic data processing
1. Manual data processing; This method makes use of desk calculator in processing data without using sophisticated machine.
2. Mechanical / electro- mechanical data processing; this method uses punch card, adding machine, manual typewriter as well as accounting machine in processing data.
3. Electronic data processing; data are processed using computer.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC/ COMPUTER DATA PROCESSING
Electronic Data processing: - is any computer process that converts data into information. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on a mainframe, minicomputer, microcomputer, or personal computer. Because data are most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.
To better market their profession, a computer programmer or a systems analyst that might once have referred, such as during the 1970s, to the computer systems that they produce as data-processing systems more often than not nowadays refers to the computer systems that they produce by some other term that includes the word information, such as information systems, information technology systems, or management information systems.
In the context of data processing, Data are defined as numbers or characters that represent measurements from observable phenomena. A single datum is a single measurement from observable phenomena. Measured information is then algorithmically derived and/or logically deduced and/or statistically calculated from multiple data. (Evidence). Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or a meaningful stimulus that can cascade into further queries.
More generally, the term data processing can apply to any process that converts data from one format to another, although data conversion would be the more logical and correct term. From this perspective, data processing becomes the process of converting information into data and also the converting of data back into information. The distinction is that conversion doesn't require a question (query) to be answered. For example, information in the form of a string of characters forming a sentence in English is converted or encoded from a keyboard's key-presses as represented by hardware-oriented integer codes into ASCII integer codes after which it may be more easily processed by a computer—not as merely raw, amorphous integer data, but as a meaningful character in a natural language's set of graphemes—and finally converted or decoded to be displayed as characters, represented by a font on the computer display. In that example we can see the stage-by-stage conversion of the presence of and then absence of electrical conductivity in the key-press and subsequent release at the keyboard from raw substantially-meaningless integer hardware-oriented data to evermore-meaningful information as the processing proceeds toward the human being.
STAGES / STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING
The following are stages in data processing:
1. Data gathering
2. Input
3. Processing
4. Storage
5. Output
6. Distribution
A computer system has four basic components, which can be seen. These components are referred to as computer hardware. The hardware is divided into the input device, the central processing unit and the backing storage.
These components relate directly to the basic steps in data processing.
DATA GATHERING: The first steps in data processing is the collection and recording of raw data in handwritten form before being converted to machine (machine language) usable form. These data may be collected form different sources e.g. form source documents like receipts, vouchers, invoices etc. data can be collected through several means including the use of questionnaire, the use of correspondents, telephone, observation and interview.
Data origination and collection is referred to as data capturing.
INPUT: this is the means by which data are fed into the data processing system.
- Originate – Data originate as a result of a business event or transaction.
- Classify – allow for identification of data with a certain category.
- Edit –data are edited when they are input to detect any error that may exist in them. It can also occur during of the three basic steps of data processing.
PROCESSING: this is the planned series of actions and operations performed on data in making the data more meaningful.
- Sort –sorting arranges a file of records according to keys, which are used to determine the sequence of records.
- Calculate – includes all standard arithmetic operation and logical deductions.
- Summaries – that is, making aggregate of data into totals or condensation that are more meaningful.
- Compare – this is logical comparison.
- Retrieve – data move from secondary to the central processing unit so that processing operations may perform.
STORAGE: this is the process of keeping data for future use
- Protect – stored data are protected from unauthorized erasure, modification or merge.
- Index – create and maintain addresses indicating one physical storage location of a particular piece of data e.g., card catalogue in a library.
- Update – adding, deleting and change of stored data to reflect new ones if wage rate is increased.
OUTPUT: this is the out come of the processing
- Re- print management information on a hard copy medium to control business operation
- Display –appear on CRT, terminal.
- Issue – prepare output document such as purchase orders or ser5vicse needed to complete a transaction.
DISTRIBUTION: The outcome of data processed will have to be communicated or conveying or pass over to its user for necessary decision making
Data processing stages (Summary).
Origination of data
Preparation- getting the data ready
Input- the act of passing the data to the processing stage.
Processing-all that is necessary to arrive at the expected or required result.
Output-the production of the end product.
ORIGINATION:- The first steps in data processing is the collection and recording of raw data in handwritten form before being converted to machine (machine language) usable form. These data may be collected form different sources e.g. form source documents like receipts, vouchers, invoices etc. data can be collected through several means including the use of questionnaire, the use of correspondents, telephone, observation, interview as earlier discussed.
Data origination and collection is referred to as data capturing.
PREPARTION:-This is the act of getting the data ready before passing into the input stages. Under data preparation some or all of the following steps may be involved.
(a). Data Classification:- This is concerned with grouping of data logically into manageable to aid processing. For example, data taken form students record may be classified by students’ names, matriculation numbers, grades, sex age, state of origin etc.
(b) Sorting:-After data are classified, it is necessary to arrange them in per-determined sequence to facilitate processing.
3. INPUT: - This is the act of passing the data to the processing stage. Some input media may be involved to carry out this stage. For example input devices are being keyboard, mouse, etc. may be involved when digital computers are being used in processing.
4. PROCESSING: - This is the manipulation of data with a view to convert them to useful information. The processing could involve arithmetic and logical operations.
5. OUTPUT OF INFORMATION: - This is the act of making the result of processing available to the user. In Electronic Data processing (EDP) The result can be in two forms: Softcopy and Hardcopy.
When the results are left in primary storage to be displayed on the VDU anytime the user needs them or when the need them or when copied onto any secondary storage medium like diskettes which can be referenced when the need arises, printed on any medium, such as paper, printed report is referred to as hardcopy.
FACORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF DATA PROCESSING METHODS
In choosing method to be adopted in data processing, the following factors should be taking into consideration.
1. Size and type of Business.
2. Time frame
3. Link between applications.
1. Size and type of Business: It is very important to take into consideration the size and nature of the business when selecting method to use. In a very small organization, single person may be able to produce all the information required but as the volume of the business increases, more people and aids may be employed.
2. Time frame: The requirement of the processed data in time wise will also be a major factor that needs to be considered in choosing any method of data processing. Some information requirements are less time critical than others
3. LINK BETWEEN APPLICATIONS: Where data is needed or more than one information requirement, a unique method of processing is required
IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON DATA PROCESSING IN BANK/ BUSINESS
Information is the life blood of a business. A business simply could not service its consumers or make high – level decisions without information to support customer service and decision-making. The followings among other are the impact of using computer system in processing in business environments.
(1) Easier business growth
(2) Fewer clerical workers
(3) Automatic of decisions.
(4) Lower costs.
(5) More or better information
DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
(1) BATCH PROCESSING: - It is a technique by which items to be processed must be coded and collected into groups of batches prior to processing. A batch consists of either a convenient number of records or a collection of records relating to a given period i.e. daily, weekly, monthly etc accumulated until a sufficient number present to justify mass updating of a master file. Each batch is used to update the master file using maintenance program and an output produced. It is one of the early attempts to optimize the use of the efficiency of a computer system. There is isolated from his job.
This type of processing is suitable for accounting and receivable, stock control, invoicing etc. simple batch processing system has the following advantages:
(a) Less complex, hence not liable to develop deadlock.
(b) System never goes into waste state
(c) There is no contention for resources between users.
(d) There is less overhead cost because operating system does not have to wait for 1-0 events.
(2) REAL TIME PROCESSING: - Real Time = Immediately, now. The processing of data in a sufficiently repaid manner so that the result of the processing of data in a sufficiently rapid manner so that the results of the processing are valuable in time to influence the current activity or processing being monitored or controlled.
The transactions are applied to the master file as they happen and information is obtained from the system on demand. It is an online system that allows immediate processing stages at once, e.g. validation, updating and reporting. Real time processing requires dual-purpose input and output devices such as terminals and VDUS. Real time systems are used for airline ticket reservation, space exploration, theatre tickets, hotel booking systems, guidance and defense systems etc.
Advantages:
(a) Immediate access to the latest up to date information via terminals at the point where the information is required.
(b) Files of data are permanently up to date and on line
(c) No need for costly and time-consuming data preparation and control operation.
(d) Enable excellent provision of management information for decision-making.
(e) No rigidity is imposed on the users.
Disadvantages:
(a) Back-up system is very complex and special methods of working will have to be observed when break down occurs.
(b) Development costs are higher, in terms of hardware.
(c) Problems of data integrity may occur.
(d) Audit trail are not so well provided for as control is centered around the number of messages input rather than details of individual transactions.
(e) The staff involved will need special training and will need to be of a high caliber.
(3) ON-LINE: - It concerns the equipment which is connected or re-engaged and functioning with the CPU and main programs e.g. tele-type units, consoles card readers, OCR readers etc. It is at least a one-way communication between operators at terminals and the CPU.
NOTE: an on-line system is not always real-time system, but real-time systems must have must have on-line capability and equipment.
(4) TIME SHARING PROCESS: - The system interacts with many users, giving each of them fast individual attention on a time slice basis. Multi-processing is easier in a time-sharing system. A user is not aware that others have access to the system. It is also an on-line processing technique.
Logical / physical Components:
(a) Simultaneously or concurrency – a variable number of users at essentially the same time
(b) Independently – program being handled by the system are operated independently of one another without the risk of being inter-mixed or having security breached.
(c) Immediacy – All requests for computer response receive that response within seconds.
(d) Spatial Un-limitability – very remote terminals
Uses: Used for short jobs usually scientific applications; used for CPU-bound jobs, where fast response is required; where many users are available.
Advantages:
(a) Memory is economically used (It supports multi-programming
(b) Computer time is economically used.
(c) No room for monopoly since there is time slice for each job.
Minicomputers, interactive mainframe systems and super microcomputers are suitable for this type of processing.
Distributed data processing: is a system in which there are several autonomous but interacting processors and or data store at different geographical locations linked over a communication network. The key features of distributed processing are as follow:
- Computers distributed over a wide geographical area.
- A computer can access the files of other computers in the system.
- The ability for computers within the system to process data jointly or interactively.
- Processing is either carried out centrally or at dispersed locations.
PART II
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
DEFINATION OF A COMPUTER
Computer is an electromechanical device which accepts data as input processes the data according to a set of previously stored instructions called program stored and releases the results of processing i.e. (information) as output.
Computer is defined as an electromechanical device because its principle of operation is based on electron ICs and mechanics. For instance, the registers, counters, RAM, ROM, etc all operate on the principle of electronics
Data as used in the definition is referred to as raw fact, that is, facts that are yet to be processed.
Information is the result obtained from processed data
The set of logical instructions given to the computer to enable it process such data is known as a program.
What is a computer system?
The term computer system refers to both a set of electro-mechanical part (i.e. the computer hardware) and a set of programs (i.e. the computer software), all used together as a single unit. A computer system thus consists of two main component systems namely the hardware system and the software system. The hardware system refers to the physical equipments such as hard disk, processor, memory (RAM and ROM), floppy disk, CD-ROM, keyboards etc. the software system is a collection of software programs such as operating system, application packages, compilers, etc.
The term computer system refers to both the set of electro-mechanical parts (the computer hardware) and the set of program (the computer software). That controls the hardware.
Basically a computer system consists of two main components viz;
(a) Hardware system and (b) Software system
(Hardware system + Software System = Computer system)
FUNCTION OF COMPUTER
Computers perform three main functions. These are;
(i) Accept data
(ii) Process data, and
(iii) Output results
The processing functions that computers perform are that they;
(i) Carry out simple arithmetic operations such as addition, subtractions, multiplications and divisions
(ii) Perform simple text manipulation operations such as inserting or deleting characters
(iii) Carry out simple logical operations such as comparing values of two numbers or determine whether or not words contain the same letters.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
The computer has the following basic features:
Automatic: computer are automatic in that once started on a job, automatically selects the instructions for its operation from a stored program and then proceeds to carry out these instructions until the problem is solved.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): controls the activities of the other machines connected to it. This enable activity can be changed as often as required, and for this reason, there are very few fields of human endeavors in which computer cannot be applied.
Electronics: computers are electronics in that they made of electronic devices such as transistors, capacitors ,inductors, ICs chip etc. these electronic components make possible the very high speed of individual operations in modern computers
Speed: modern computers operate at a very high speed.
Accuracy: when a computer is programmed correctly and when the input is entered properly, the accuracy of the output is guaranteed.
REASONS FOR USING COMPUTER
The benefits accruable from using computers are:
Speed: computers operate at very high speeds in that problem that may take 100 men so many hours to solve may not take a computer more than few seconds.
Accuracy: the results of operations carry out by computers when they are properly programmed and data correctly entered are very accurate and reliable.
Large storage capacity: computers have very large storage capacity. A microcomputer is capable of storing billions of information. Access to the information so stored in the computer is always guaranteed.
Cost- effectiveness: a computer can be used to perform within few seconds jobs that would take several people hours to perform manually. This reduces drastically cost of hiring labour.
Ability to work without resting: subject to suitable environmental conditions, computer can work for hours, days or weeks non-stop without getting tired. It neither goes on leave nor goes on strike.
REASONS FOR COMPUTER FAILURE
Computers despite being built with high degree of accuracy, speed, reliability and precision have failed to accomplish their goals to the satisfaction of those who use computer-produced information. The following reasons could be adduced as to why computers sometimes disappoint users.
Input data error: - data must be correctly entered into the computer. If incorrect data are entered, computer would process such data as corrects ones and the output results of such processing would be incorrect. This is a case of garbage in garbage out (GIGO).
Programming error: - a computer programmer writes a set of logical instructions to be used by computers to read data, process it and produce output. Sometimes the program so written may contain syntax and logical error, which may go undetected during the writing and compilation stages of the programs. When such programs are used to process data the result of the processing would produce incorrect answers to the computer user which the user may not know
Virus attack: - a computer virus is a program written by a professional computer programmer with the sole intention of causing computer systems to malfunction. When the computer memory is virus infected, the result of this is a computer system whose output does not meet the expectation of the computer user.
Viruses are destructive or deceptive programs that spread from computer to computer over the Internet or a network. Viruses can be attached to other files or disguised as files that look ordinary. You can help protect your computer from viruses and other security threats by:
· Installing and using up-to-date antivirus software.
· Setting up your e-mail and Internet software so that it is more difficult for files containing viruses to make their way onto your computer at all.
In addition to using up-to-date antivirus software, one should also make sure that it has a "real-time scanning" feature this is depending on the brand of software, this feature might have another name. Real-time scanning checks files before they are opened or used.
HEALTH HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONTINUOUS USE OF COMPUTERS
1. Working on computers for long period causes eyes strain.
2. Not sitting in the correct position lead to back problems
3. Another well known hazard of computer usage is repetitive strain injury. Problems with the hands, wrists, arms, necks, back are cause by spending long hours on the computers.
4. Stress can also result from overuse of computers.
SOLUTION TO THESE PROBLEMS INCLUDE
Stress can be reduced by taking rest breaks, so also strain injury. People should learn to sit in the right position and upright with legs at right angle to the floor and screen at head height and at reasonable distance from the face.
Preventive is definitely the easiest way to deal with these potentials problems.
CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
It is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish among the various types of computer systems. Here an attempt is made to classify the various types of computers using the following parameters:
Principle of operation
Technology and date of manufacture
Size, Cost and Capacities
Purpose
A. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONS
Based on principle of operations (I.e. data representation) computers can be classified to types as digital, analog and hybrid computers.
1. DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computer breaks down problem into arithmetic such as numbers, letters, and other symbols and represents data in discrete form. It is built from combination logic circuit such as logic gates. Digital computers are very useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulation of data. Its advantages are accuracy, reliability and versatility. Hence, they are regarded as general purpose machine.
2. ANALOG COMPUTER
These are computers that set up analog of problems and represents data by continuous measurement. Analog computers are built from amplifier, potentiometer, adders, subtracts flip- flops, registers and other sequential logic circuits. They are essentially measuring instruments.
When compared with digital computers, analog computers are less accurate, reliable and versatile. They are best suited to represent measurable measuring quantities. Hence, they are mostly regarded as special-purpose computers.
3. HYBRID COMPUTERS
Hybrid computers combine the functions and characteristics of both analog and digital computers. That is depending on the prevailing situation, they can be used either as analog or digital. Hybrid computers have three main parts; digital, analog and interface.
The INTERFACE provides a communication link between the analog and digital through the subsystems of control, data and logic. Hybrid computers are widely used for solving problems of optimization in dynamic systems.
B. SIZE, COST AND FUNCTIONS;
1. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
A mainframe computer is large computers in term of price, size of memory and speed. Mainframe computer usually need a specialized environment in which to operate with dust and temperature carefully controlled. They are usually sophisticated and large, thus they need detail support from the manufacturers. They are mostly used in large establishment e.g. Banks and Universities.
Futures:
(i) this category lies between the supper computers and the mini computers
(ii) they are cheaper than super computers but costlier than mini computers
(iii) they operate at high speed
(iv) they have many peripherals attached to them
(v) they occupy large space
(vi) they have large main memory system and various backup facilities
(vii) they do computation very fast and have very high precision
(viii) they are used for commercial data processing and for solving scientific and engineering problems
(ix) they are mostly used by large establishments
2. Mini computers
These are smaller less powerful and less expensive than mainframe. They are easier to install and manage and require less space for installation.
Futures:
(i) they are mostly special purpose computers
(ii) they are cheaper, smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer
(iii) they are more sophisticated compare to mainframe and hence their capacities, memory size, overall performance have overlapped those of mainframe computers
(iv) unlike the mainframe; data are collected and processed as they are generated
(v) The most powerful minicomputers are termed super-minis.
3. Microcomputer:
This is also called personal computers (PC). It cost between #80, 000.00 to #500, 000.00. They vary in size from small portable such as laptop computers that can be carried about like briefcase, to powerful desktop work stations such as those used by engineers and scientists. A microcomputer (generally use by only one person at a time) uses a microprocessor or chip as its CPU.
4. SUPER COMPUTERS
These are Computer that can handle a very big amount of scientific computation. It is maintained in a special room or environment. It may be about 50,000 times faster than a microcomputer, and may cost as much as over #2 billion. It is used in a special area like defense and weaponry, weather forecasting, scientific research etc.
Futures:
(i) they are largest computers
(ii) they are fastest computers
(iii) they are the most expensive computers
(iv) the manufacturing cost is high and so the market is limited
(v) they are very good at calculations
C. TECHNOLOGY AND DATE OF MANUFACTURE
It is usual to associate each stage of computer development commonly referred to as generation with one sort of technological innovation or another. Each innovation usually makes possible or available before in the light of this. Computers could be divided into five groups, viz: First generation computers, Second generation computers, Third generation computers, Fourth generation computers and Fifth generation computers.
The first large scale electronic computer, the electronic numerical integrator and computer (ENIAC) became operational in 1946. It contained approximately 18,000 electronic vacuum tubes. ENIAC weighted 30 tons and occupied about 1,500 square feet of floor space. It was able to perform a scientific calculation involving the multiplication of four numbers in approximately 9 milliseconds (9/looths of a second). Since that time, the technology used in the design and production of computers has accelerated at a remarkable pace.
The term generation was applied to different types of computers to help delineate the major technological developments in hardware and software. To date, computer technology has evolved through four distinct generations and is currently developing into fifth generation thus general-purpose computers. Most input and output media were punched cards and magnetic tape and main memory was almost exclusively made up of hundreds of vacuum tubes. These computers were slow and large and produced a tremendous amount of heat. They could run one programal a time. ENIAC and UNIVAC
Second Generation (1959 – 1963)
By the early 1960s, transistors and some other solid-state devices that were much smaller than vacuum tubes were being used for much of the computer circuitry. Magnetic cores, which looked like very small metal washers strung together by wires that carried electricity became the most widely used type of main memory. Removable magnetic disk packs, stacks of disks connected by a common spindle (like a stock of records) were introduced as storage devices. (Second – generation machines tended to be smaller, more reliable and significantly faster than first generation computers).
Third Generation (1964 – 1970)
During this period, the integrated circuit – a complete electronic circuit on a silicon chip – replaced transistorized circuitry. The uses of magnetic disks became widespread and computers began to support such capabilities as multiprogramming (processing several programs simultaneously). Minicomputers were being widely used by the early 1970s.
The production of operating systems – a type of systems software – and applications software packages increased rapidly. The size of computers continued to decrease.
Fourth Generation (1971 – 1980)
In 1971, the first electronic computers were introduced that used large-scale integration (LSI) circuits-thousands of integrated circuits on chip – for main memory and logic circuitry (the circuitry that performs the logical operations of the CPU; different types of chips hard different functions.) these computer has a much large capacity to support main memory. This period has also seen increased use of input and output devices that allowed data and instructions to be entered directly through the keyboard. The microprocessor introduce in 1971 combined all of the circuitry for the CPU on a single chip. LSI and the microprocessor enabled the development of the supercomputer
Fifth Generation 1981 – Now
Japan announced the fifth generation computers in 1981. They have the following characteristics:
(a) Integrated circuits with a minimum of 11 million transistors per semiconductor chip
(b) The ability to communicate with users in natural language.
(c) Using simplified programming e.g. structured programs.
(d) Variety of sizes, from portable to super computers.
D. PURPOSE
Based on purpose, computers could be divided into two:
- Special- purpose computers; and
- General-purpose computers.
Special purpose: A computers is said to be special purpose if it is designed to solve a particular problem only. It cannot solve any other problem except that for which it is designed. Examples are traffic control computer and telephone exchange computer.
General Purpose computer: The general purpose computer is designed to solve as many different problems as a user can program on it. In other words it is programmable. Such a computer can be used for computation, artistic work, music composition, teaching etc.
COMPUTER STORAGE SYSTEM
A computer has limited storage capacity for information in its main memory. Limited storage arises because the main memory is made from extensive materials at a moderate cost. The computer primary memory is made up of an array of strings of electronic bits able storage elements called the core. A core is a discrete physical storage cell which is capable of being set by an external signal into one or two states 0 and 1. A core remains in this state until it is changed by some external signal. Thus, a core stores a BIT (Binary Digit) of information.
Bit: a bit is the smallest unit identifiable in the computer memory. A bit in the computer represents 0 and 1 of the binary number system. For example, the binary number 10100111 is made up of 8 bits.
Bytes: a byte is a combination of a specified number of bits and is the smallest addressable unit in the memory. The standard number of bits that constitute a byte is 8. Therefore the binary number 10100111 is one byte.
Word: a number of bits are grouped together to form a word. A word constitutes the amount of data that a computer can handle in a given operation. The number of bits that constitute a word is called the word length. The size of word length varies from one computer to another. The word length of IBM system is 32 bits.
Storage Capacity: each word or bytes in computer memory needs a unique address by which it can be located. A computer word is usually used to represent the address of a particular storage location. If n is the address word length in bit then the maximum number of storage locations which can be Zn.
COMPUTER SPEED AND CAPACITY
The speed at which the CPU operates is referred to as the clock speed. It is expressed in megahertz (MHZ) e.g. 33MHZ=33 million cycles per second.
The speed of a computer is dictated by the speed and power of the elements inside it. For simple applications, speed may not be of great importance and the extra cost of a faster computer may not be justified.
However with some applications, particularly those dealing with large graphics, the faster your computer, the more efficiently the application will run. The speed of the processor chip in a computer is the main factor in determining the overall speed of a computer. Some common processor types are;
IBM compatible PC 486
Macintosh compatible
Increasing the amount of RAM on a computer improves its performance and speed as more information can be checked any time in the RAM. Some computer hard disks are faster at accessing information than others. The amount of free space in a computer hard disk influences its speed. If a computer hard disk is almost full, one might find out that the computer works very slowly. This is because there is no free space for the operating system to utilize as virtual memory.
THE HARDWARE SYSTEM
By the term “HARDWARE” we mean the electro-mechanical (physical part) of the computer system which can be touched, seen, felt or handled. The hardware subsystem of a computer is divided into major parts, namely:
(a) The peripherals subsystems:
- The Input unit
- The Output units and
- External Storage’s
All these are linked together by a switching unit termed the ‘peripheral interface’.
(b) The central processing unit (CPU)
THE INPUT UNIT
Input unit is the medium through which data and instructions fed into the computer system. It provides the medium by which data or instruction or information is fed into computer system.
It accepts input data (information/instructions) and transmits the data as a series of electrical pulses into the computers’ primary memory. An input unit consists of an input devise and an input medium.
Examples of input devices are;
(i) The keyboard
(ii) The mouse
(iii) The scanner
(iv) The touch screen
(v) The graphics/digitizing tables
(vi) The joystick
(vii) The trackball
(viii) CD-ROM
(ix) Optical Mark Reader
(x) Optical Character Reader
(xi) Magnetic Ink Character Reader
(xii) Disk Drive
(xiii) Tape Deck
(ix) Card Reader
THE OUTPUT UNIT:
Output unit transmits result to computer user. Output unit displays the result of data that have been processed. On the other hand, output unit provides the medium by which results of computer operations on input data are transmitted to the computer user. An output unit consists of an output device and an output media. Basically output device are used to move data and information out of the computer’s primary memory.
Example of output devices are;
1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Computer Output on Microfilm (COM)
4. Plotter
5. Digital voice
6. LCD/LED
7. Tape Deck
8. Disk Drive
9. CD Writer
THE SECONDARY STORAGE UNIT
This is the computer storage unit where data and information are kept outside the computer primary memory. The secondary storage otherwise known as backing storage is used for mass storage of computer programs, data or files. That is, those programs and files that are not currently being processed but which will be transferred to the primary memory when required.
The followings among others are examples of secondary storage;
v Magnetic tape unit
v Magnetic disk unit
v Magnetic diskette unit
v Optical disk unit
v Hard disk (non- removable)
v Floppy disk (removable)
v Flash drive
STORAGE DEVICES
There are several devices which could be used as backing storage devices
OPTICAL DISK UNIT AND OPTICAL DISK
They are often called laser disks because a laser beam is used to read or write to them
There are three types in use presently, all of which make use of laser to read or write data. The main purpose is to store huge amount of data in a computer environment. The four types for our purpose of learning are:
(a) CD-ROM
(b) WORM
(c) EO
(d) MO
(e) DVD.
CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory)
The CD-ROM is at time called O-ROM meaning Optical Read-Only Memory. The compact disk units are devices used for reading pre-recorded data on the CD-ROM. Pre-recorded data can be read by the use of a laser moving at a low intensity and detecting the pattern of ray of light reflecting from its beam on the surface of the disk as the CD rotates on a turntable device. In reality they work in the same manner as the domestic audio compact disk. There are also some systems that make use of sound and data CD at the same time.
Some CDs are capable of holding up to 660 megabytes of data as backups for a computer system. The access speed is however slower than the magnetic disk, this is due to the mass production rate of the CD and also the technology is relatively new. As time progresses, CD manufacturers are planning for a faster device.
CD-ROM, have “jukebox” option, a term borrowed from the disco tech and club houses. Several CD’s can be loaded into jukebox and with the control of a software, the system gains access to a large amount of data simultaneously.
CD are useful in many aspects such as the provision of catalog, dictionaries and directories, reference file, graphical images and sounds, software font descriptions.
WORM (Write once read many)
They are akin to a fixed disk unit, but data are written by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disk by means of a high-resolution, high-precision laser beam. The WORM disks are nevertheless exchangeable unlike the fixed magnetic disk.
They are also similar in stricture to the CD with surfaces of about 40,000 tracks each of which is further subdivided into 25 sectors with a total storage capacity approximating 1 gigabyte (1/1000,000,000 bytes) it takes longer time to manufacture WORM unlike CD’s which are in mass production hence they are more reliable, dependable and prone to minimal data loss and in the future they may be made to become reusable. Their transfer and access rate is also slower than a magnetic disk. Their lack of eras ability at the moment is advantageous for one reason, since a WORM disk is containing vital information, for instance in a bank, such information provide an indestructible audit trial and are also suitable for office storage system thereby avoiding a mass junk of paper work.
12” WORM drives are available with storage capacity close to 12.5 GB and having better transfer rate. Where a jukebox is fitted with about 6 WORM disks. The system is capable of handling up to 27 GB with cartridge exchange time of approximately 2.5 seconds.
E.O (Erasable Optical)
They have a casing similar to 3.5” floppy and of the same size as CD. Their capacity is about 650 megabytes. As their name suggest, they can be reused over and over again which makes them advantageous them conventional CDs and WORMs.
MO (MAGNETO-OPTICAL DISKS)
It is an optical disk where the surface is magnetically coated and these magnetic materials change its polarity when heated to write on the disk, a high powered laser beam heats a tiny spot in the magnetic medium that allows it to accept magnetic patterns representing data. To read data from the media, a lower-powered light beam is passed through the surface of the disk and the data transferred from the medium to memory or another media. MO is erasable and re-writeable disk cable of being used over a million times.
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL
They provide the following advantages be it the CD-ROM, WORM, EO, MO or DVD disk.
(a) Offers potential for combining data, video and audio information on a single medium.
(b) Provides vast amount of storage capabilities
(c) Permit the removal of disk from drive which simplifies security and data backup procedure and encourages the collection of databases.
THE PROCESSOR UNIT
The purpose of the computer processor is to provide a CPU which interprets instruction codes received from memory and to perform arithmetic, logic and control operation on data stored in a number of registers, and control information to and from modules connected to the CPU.
THE CONTROL UNIT
This is an integral part of the processor (CPU). All the functions of the CPU are coordinated by this unit which interprets and carries out the instruction contained in a program. It controls, directs, monitors and co-ordinate all activities within the CPU. It is the master dispatcher of the computer system.
THE ARITHMETIC/ LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
This is the circuitry system for performing arithmetic operations (i.e. additions, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponential); as well as logical operations (i.e. AND, OR, NOR, COMPARE etc.)
THE BUSES
A group of wires (paths) through which binary information (instruction, data, addresses and control information)) is transferred one bit at a time among registers in the circuit are called buses.
THE CLOCK
Clock is an integral part of the processor being used by the processors to generate multiphase clock pulse that provide timing and control for internal function of the processor.
THE REGISTERS
This is a group of memory unit that provides temporary storage for all the data/ information being processed, as well as the software directing the processing. It is also used to hold the immediately needed instructions or data. Every communication of any two units of the computer system passes through the primary memory unit.
The primary memory unit is otherwise known as internal memory or internal storage or main memory can be divided into two parts namely:
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM: This is the portion of the computer primary memory that stores users’ information or data. The information can be retrieved for use, modified or even erased.
It is otherwise known as volatile memory because when there is power failure data stored RAM is lost.
The capacity of RAM may be enhanced on site if necessary. A computer user has complete access to the contents of primary memory (RAM).
ROM: This is the second portion of the computer primary memory. It is used for storing permanent information for instance, system information. This information is stored at the manufacturing time and once stored information can only be retrieved for use, it cannot be modified or erased.
User has no access to the content of the ROM, he/ she can only read it but cannot write into it. ROM is much cheaper on a cost - per - bit basis than RAM. ROM is non volatile i.e. the information stored on ROM is not lost even if there is power failure. Therefore, it is also known as a non volatile memory.
THE SOFTWARE SYSTEM
Computer needs clear- cut instruction to tell it (computer) what to do, how to do it and when to do it, and when to do it. Set of instructions to carry out these functions is called a program.
A group of such programs that are put into a computer to operate and control its activities is called Software.
CLASIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The computer software could be divided into two major groups namely:
(a) System software and
(b) Application software.
System software- These refer to the suite of programs that facilitate the optional use of the hardware system and or provide suitable environment for the writing, editing, debugging, testing and running of user programs. They are set of programs written to manage and control the performance of the computer by the manufacturer. Examples include;
- The operating system O/S;
- Language processors;
- Utility software etc.
Application Software- These are program designed to solve problem of specific nature. The computer manufacturer could either apply it or in some cases the users produce their own application program called USER PROGRAM. Hence, application software sub divided into two classes namely; Generalized and User- defined software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These are programs developed to make computers better adapted to the need of their users. This can further be divided into:
Operating system
Development software.
Utility software
Program Language Translator
Performance
Communication / Network software
Database Management Software
It is important to note here that in all above, only the first three divisions is relevant to Micro Computer Operation.
1. OPERATING SYSTEM:
Is the most important software system, it is a collection of program which controls the operation of the computer system.
Operating system is the master control program that supervises all other computer programs running on a computer.
It is responsible for the interpretation of commands, controlling inputs and output and operating the disk drives.
Functions of Operating system are:
Ø It does memory Management
Ø It does the file Management
Ø It does the processor Management
Ø It manages the peripherals devices (i.e. input/output devices).
Ø Resource sharing
Ø Facilitates coding, design and debugging of users programs.
Ø Controls input / Output operations
Ø Protection and error handling
Ø Program interaction
Ø Program control
Ø Device Management
Ø Provide an interface between the computer hardware and user of the computer system.
Ø Accounting of computer resources
Every computer system needs an operating system (control program) to start it up. Many operating systems are available today for different types of computers
Types of Operating system;
In computer system environment, the operating system could be classified basically into three classes. Stated below are the three classes:
a) Single-user systems- This kind of operating systems makes the machine available for only one user at a time. Examples are:
- Ms-DOS:- micro-soft disk operating system
- PC-DOS:- personal computer operating system
- CP/M:- control program for microcomputer
- OS/2:- operating system 2
b) Multi- user System- This is another class of operating system that is capable of managing and coordinating the hardware resources of multi-user computer systems.
The multi-user is an environment where many users through terminal share a computer called the “host”. Examples are:
- XENIX
- PC-MOS
- UNIX
- LINUX etc.
c) Network – In this class of operating systems, computer are fully or semi-independent connected together. With this connection, various are being shared by the connected systems. Examples includes:
- RPT-NET
- Window NT
- Novell network
- Microsoft LAN manager
- UNIX
- LINUX
2. DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
This is the software that enables the user to develop system and application software. This includes translators (i.e. interpreters, compilers and assemblers); microprocessor and linker loader example are assemblers, compilers and interpreter.
Examples of development software:
1. Translator: This is a program that takes as an input a program written in one programming language (the sources language) and produces as an output a program in another language (the object or target language).
2. Assembler: This is a translator that converts a program written in symbolic or mnemonic form (i.e. in an assembly language) into another language in machine code. Here, the source language is in assembly language and the target language is machine code.
3. Compiler: This is the general term used for programs that enables computer user(s) to perform specific tasks or jobs such as solving equations, producing payroll, solving business problems and solving scientific problems etc.
3. UTILITIES OR SERVICE PROGRAMS
Utility Software- this is a set of commonly used program in data processing department also called service or general- purpose programs. They are programs supplied by the manufacturer of the computer for performing specific tasks. They perform some of the more common daily operations or routines such as sorting, merging, copying etc. Often, the user or the programmer may write his own program to achieve target goals
The service programs include:
Sort/ merge utilities
Sorting- provides certain parameter and request the machine to arrange a set of records into a certain order (ascending or descending) using some keys.These are programs used to sort or merge records or files into a specified order. A sort program may be used to arrange records in a file in a particular order. That is, ordered in, descending or ascending sequence of a unique attribute of the records. While a merge program is used for merging related records in a file or merging related files.
Copy utilities
These are programs used for copying the contents of one file into another. They could also be used to transfer the contents of a file from one storage medium to another. It makes an exact copy of a file from one medium to another lot of the same medium e.g. copy from one area of disk pack to another area.
File conversion- This covers data transfer from any medium to another making an exact copy or simultaneously editing and validating. For example, a copy from a machine tapes to a disk.
Editors
Editors are programs used for updating the records in a file. That is, they are used for entering and correcting texts, programs and data files
File maintenance utilities
These are program specifically used for updating files, it enables user to insert and delete records into or from sequential files. It allows user to rename files and amend standing data.
Debuggers
These are programs used for removing errors or bugs from a program.
Dump utilities/ Routines
Dump utilities are programs used mostly when errors occur in the execution of a program. It is used to copy the content of main memory onto the output devices which may be displayed on the screen or printed out to find out the problem areas of the program. This program transfers a working program and its data into a backing storage at regular intervals from where the program can be loaded using a restart program.
Formatting unities
These are programs specifically used to prepare secondary storage devices for use. Example, a diskette must be formatted (preparing a new disk for use) before being used on a computer.
Emulators
Emulators are special programs that permit the object program generated on one computer to be executed on a different computer entirely
File re- organization- It involves cleaning the computer memory by re organizing the cylinder and bucket indexes which transfer displayed records back into their home buckets.
Housekeeping Operation- These include programs to clear off storage, writing file labels, up dating common data. They are not involved in solving the problem at hand. They are operations that must be performed before and after actual processing.
Tracing Routines- This dump the content of the main store during program testing to facilitate error detection
Library programs- A given problem usually can be broken down into sub-problems. The solution to those sub-problems put together provides solution to the original problem. A set of programs for such common sub-problems written and stored in computer backing storage is called a library of programs. A user requests the use of any such programs through a command to the O/S.
4. LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
The early programmers faced the difficulty of having to writes programs in the language of the computer or languages very similar to that of the computer which are quite different from their own languages (English, French etc), thereby having problems with error corrections and fluency.
With these difficulties in mind and the advance in technology it became necessary to device languages similar to our own called high programs and providing another program called language translator that translates these programs from high level language to the language to the computer
The hierarchies of the languages are as follows;
a) Machine language.
b) low level language
c) high level language
a. Machine language: consists of series of binary numbers (digit consisting of zeros (o) and ones (1), which is the language the computer understands.
Advantages of Machine language
- Machine language has a faster execution time as it is composed of Os and 1s which is to the language of the computer.
- It doesn’t require interpreter or a compiler.
Disadvantages
- It is tedious and laborious to write. It is time consuming.
- It is disadvantageous because it occupies a lot of memory space.
- The programmer is forced to keep track of storage locations of data and instructions.
b. Low level language: a low language is a machine oriented language consisting of symbolic codes in which instructions correspond or resemble the machine languages. The language is machine dependent; the structure varies from one machine to another. e.g. Assembly language
Advantage of Assembly language
1. It is more comprehensive to human beings than the machine language.
2. It does not consume memory space.
3. It is easier to write compared to machine language
Disadvantages
1. Assembly language is machine dependent. That is the structure varies from machine to machine
2. Execution time is not fast as it has to be converted to machine code before execution.
c. High level language: this is a procedure or problem oriented language which is a restricted form of the natural language (our own language) used in programming. Such languages include basic (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), FORTRAN (Formula Translation), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), ALGOL (Algorithmic Language), PL/1 (Programming Language1), RPG (Report Program Generator), PASCAL etc
Advantages of high level language
There is ease of understanding, and is generally easier to read, write, and correct.
Most high level language is portable, that is the programs run on a variety of machines. (not machine dependent).
Disadvantages
They require a compiler to translate them to machine codes.
much time is spent on compilation than in other languages
Programs written in other programming languages beside the machine language are called source programs. However, the language translator, as its name implies translate programs from one language to another. A language is a set of notation used for communications. Three examples of classes of language translator are:
Assemblers- A language is a set of notation using symbols or mnemonics that are easily readable to write computer programs. It is a computer program that accepts a source program in assembly language program and translates to object program. The source program translated is a low-level language. Simply put; it is a program that translates programs written in assemble language into machine code.
Interpreters- It is a program that accepts a program in a source language, reads, translates and executes it line into machine language. Interpreter is a program which translates the source program into machine language statement. It translates statement and executes it before taking on the next statement.
Compilers- A compiler is a computer program that accepts a source program in one high level language read and translates the entire user’s program into an equivalent program in machine language called the object program. It is program that translates the whole source program into machine code or language. That is, it accepts the whole source program as input and products the object program which is the compiled or translated version of the source program, the output before executing the program.
The stages in compilation include:
(a) Lexical analysis
(b) Syntax analysis
(c) Semantic analysis
(d) Intermediate analysis
(e) Code generation
For each high- level language there is a different complier. We can therefore talk about COBOL complier, FORTRAN Complier etc.
The distinction between an interpreter and a compiler is that a compiler does not execute the statements during the process of translation like the interpreter. The object code thus produced after compilation can be executed the or sometimes in the future; whereas the whole process of translation is repeated in the case of the interpreter each time the program is to be run. Consider a prize giving day in a secondary school where there are Hausa and Yoruba in attendance who have no idea of English language, and addresses would be delivered in English. The interpreter as a translator will be translating to them sentence by sentence as the speech goes, while the compiler would produce a translated version of the speech in the different languages for the people, which they could read there and or taken home for future purposes without looking for a translator each time they want to read it.
5. PREFORMANCE
Monitoring software is use to monitor, analyze, and report on the performance of the computer system and its components. This software provides such information as the percentage of the processor utilization and the number of disk accesses during any given period of time. This type of information enables the operator to make the most efficient use of hardware resources, as may be necessary.
6. COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE
This is the software that controls the flow of data to and from remote locations.
SOFTWARE GENERATIONS
Software generations refer to the generations/developmental stages of the programming languages.
First generation; this is the machine language. It is the forerunner of all programming languages consisting of binary digits (0, 1). This generation is the late 40’s.
Second generation; this is the assembly language (low level language) consisting of abbreviated words (mnemonics.) it makes programming much easier than the first generation. In this generation, there is need to know what is happening where, and how within the system. This generation is the early 50’s
third generation; this consists of the high- level languages where programming is done in languages very close to our own, e.g. English, French etc. this generation is the late 60s emphasis is laid on what is happening inside the computer.
Fourth generation; there are the application generators that automate the routines involved in programming. There features include;
(a) setting up data entry screens
(b) creating files
(c) querying data
(d) Report generation.
Examples are the database packages (Dbase), spread sheet, and graphics packages.
(5) Fifth generation; these are declarative language, where programmer state the problem and the language sorts out the solution. The fifth generation language involves massive databases on a particular subject or field where query facilities and enquiries are made in natural languages. Such systems are called expect systems. An example of the language is Turbo PROLOG, (Programming in Logic) and LISP (List processing).
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application Software: - These are programs use to solve the user problems, they are technically called problem – oriented software which allows a computer to be used for a specific problem. These programs may be provided by the computer manufacturer or supplier, but in many cases the users produce their own application program called user programs.
A good example is a payroll program designed to work out workers salaries or wages. Such a program can not be used to control the stock of inventory and likewise a stock control program can not be used to prepare workers salaries. Thus, they are restricted to specific problem or application area. Hence, application software sub divided into two classes namely;
- Generalized software / Application Packages
- User- defined software/ User’s Program
1. Generalized software/ Application Packages
These are ready- made program written on a standardized way of application, which are common to many users. They are general in approach because they are written, bearing in mind that they are open to many users. They are generalized set of programs which can be bought in a ready-made form, from computer shops. The followings are common examples:
(1) Word processing packages- Examples are:
Ms-word, Word perfect, Word star, Display writer, Professional writer, LOTUS manuscript, LOCO script, MM advantage II etc.
(2) Spreadsheet packages- A spreadsheet is sheet of paper rule into a grid of rows and columns on which you can do financial calculations. A spreadsheet calculator program does exactly the same thing on the screen of your computer. Examples are LOTUS 1-2-3, Supercalc, Ms Multiplan, Ms-Excel, Informix, VP Planner etc.
(3) Integrated Packages- They are programs or packages that perform a variety of different processing operations using data that is compatible with whatever operation is being carried out. They perform a number of operations like word processing; data base management and spread sheeting. Examples are: Enable, Office Writer, Logistic Symphony, Framework, Ability, Smart ware II, Microsoft Works V2 etc.
(4) Graphic Packages- These are packages that enable you to bring out images diagrams and pictures. Examples are PM, PM Plus, Graph-writer.
(5) Database Packages- It is software for designing, setting up and subsequently managing a database. (A database is an organized collection of data that allows for modification taking care of different users view). Examples are: Dbase III, IV, Foxbase, Rbase data Perfect, Paradox III, Revelation advanced etc.
(6) Statistical Packages- These are packages that can be used to solve statistical problem e.g. Stat graphics SPSS etc.
(7) Desktop Publishing– these are packages that can be used to produce books, document in standard form because of its different fonts. Examples are Pagemaker, Ventura, Fontasey, Brush Xerox, Formbase, News Master II, Dbase Publisher.
(8) Games Packages- These are packages that contain a lot of games for children and adult. Examples are chess, scrabbles, monopoly, tune trivia, star trek 2, soccer game, War Game etc.
(9) Communication Packages- Examples are carbon plus, SAGE, Chit Chaf, Data Soft, Crosstalk etc.
There are so many packages around, virtually for every field of study but these are just to mention few of them. Advantages of these packages includes quick and cheaper implementation which is time saving, minimum tune for its design, they have been tested and proven to be correct, they accompanied by full documentation and are also very portable.
2. User’s program
This is a suite of program written by programmers, or computer users required for the operation of their individual business or tasks. Example is a payroll packages develop for salary operation of a particular company.
Social implications of computerization:
(i) Computers are used in almost every field of business. In investment, computers are used to get up-to-the-minute information on stocks and bonds and to make split-second buy and sell-decisions. Banks use computers to process the huge amount of cheques and credit card transactions that take place daily. In manufacturing computers are used to design new products, control-manufacturing equipment, and regulate inventory and raw materials. Computer are used to automatically place orders, alert customers when there are possible stock outs and help managers control every aspect of a manufacturing operation. Computerized robots are used to paint weld faster and attach parts along the assembly line. Computer can also be used in personnel management, payroll, accounting, security procedures, etc
(ii) The growth of the computer information industry has created a vast and varied number of jobs-both for computer professional and computer-literate users. Computer professionals are now employer as computer programmers, system analysts, system engineers, etc
The employment picture for users is also good; many employers now require some degree of computer competency as a prerequisite for employment. Computers are becoming standard business tools for all employees- from the managing director of the company to the deans in the typing pool.
(iii) The modern day managers using computers as tools are becoming more and more efficient. Decisions that are subject to rules can be automated so that managers can use computers to take such decisions. Also there are series of software that can be used to support decision-making. The software is known as Decision Support Systems (DSS). Such decision support systems can be used in semi-structure or unstructured decisions. Excel, lotus 1-2-3, office works are examples of such software, the software are good for “What if analysis”.
(iv) Bank customers also enjoy the advantages of computerization in the banking industry. They no longer spend long hours to transact business. The use of MICR cheques and equipment ensures prompt attention in the banks. Account balances can be checked in any branch of the customer’s bank. There is no need to go about with large amount of money. The electronics funds transfer has taken care of that life is safer. Transactions in retail stores, supermarkets, etc can be done with credit cards. Automated teller machines (ATMS) can be used to deposit and withdraw cash from one’s account at any time of the day without entering the banking halls.
Users have to be trained, the main purpose of this is to ensure that existing staffs are able to perform effectively in their current jobs, and where required, be able to pursue other roles in the organization. Training is linked with development. Training and development can take a number of forms such as:
1. Mistral training for new employees
2. Skills training to provide new skills for a proposed job
3. Skills development to upgrade an employees skills is a gives area
4. Team building: - to provide the appropriate vehicle for individual improvement in team work.
Training and development can be carried out in many ways such as the participation in activities such as formal courses, short courses, seminars, projects, secondments, team working, etc.
Bank/ Organizations using it are to plan their business and re-engineer their business processes by abandoning functional specialization. Such Bank/ Organization became potentially much more focused around the key decision needs of the business: these concerned with meeting the needs of the customer.
PART III
FACILITIES FOR COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION ACCESS
INTRODUCTION INTERNET
The internet is a network of network, a society of interconnected computer, spanning the entire globe. The connection is however made possible over telephone lines and recently cable modem, fiber optic cable which is just like ordinary telephone cable like the type you use to access to any website throughout the world. The word “Internet” simply means the “world assemblage”, which connect different types of computer together basically in private, government, academic and individuals to generate particular information. When we are discussing this topic, we are talking about the actual shortcut of a “center area” that combined the worldwide information technology together and distribute to any users that search for them in distinctive ways. When you start using the internet, you gradually becoming a part of the network where you can have access to the wealth of information available from different areas on the network and of course being in a position to put your own information or advert on the network for other people to access.
Network simply means the combination of lines and nodes. The line refers to as the path along which makes resources flow, while nodes means the point where lines intersect transferring resources to new lines. Network can also be defined as a number of local computers that are connected in such a way that they can share information and resources together and supply to the users as requested for.
Internet connects computer together through local area network (LAN), which is used to describe a set of computers that are connected close to one another in such a manner that they can share the same software e.g. System unit or CPU Printer, Scanner etc. at a time
The Internet is the name given to technology that allows any computer with a telecommunication to exchange information with any other suitable equipped computer. The date sources and computers around the world are connected to one another through the internet. Alternatively, the internet is not just date. It is an international community of people who share information, interact and communicate. From the point of its users, the internet is a vast collection of resources people, information multi-media. Through the internet the world has been reduced to a global village. It is pertinent to note that the internet is not run by any organization, and it is not owned by any organization. Instead, people grow the internet when they build computer networks and link their networks to another.
Networking and Interactive Processing
The two principal blocks that facilitate development and the use of MIS are DBMS and Telecommunications. The former makes data integration possible, while the latter brings information closer to the end users, who constitute nodes in a telecommunication network. The notion of telecommunications implies that some geographical distance exists between the computer site and the users' locations and that data are electronically transmitted between them. Remote applications may be executed between two floors in the same building, two offices in the same city, two offices on the same continent, or two places on opposite sides of the globe (Martin, 1990).
WORLD WIDE WEB OR WESITE
THE MEANING
World Wide-Web means a data that operate in the internet which allows viewing texts and graphics on the internet. The world wide-web is popularly called web or website and the abbreviation is “www”. The popular web server intermediary is Internet Solution Provider (ISP).
As mentioned earlier, the one of the most popular features of the web is that, the pages are usually lined in such a manner as to enable a user jump one pages to another by clicking a specific and special texts or graphics which lead to another web pages which are commonly called lines, hotmail or hypertexts.
They are usually underlined and displayed in different colours that other text that do not links.
Intranet Technology
An intranet is an internal organization network based on internet technology that can provide access to data across the enterprises. It uses the existing company network infrastructure along with internet connectivity standards and software developed for the World Wide Web. Intranets can create network applications that can run on many different kinds of computers through out the organization. The major difference between the web and an intranet is that while the web is normally protected and prevented from public access.
Extranet Technology
An extranet is a private intranet that is accessible to selected outsiders. Some firms are following people and organization from the outside to have limited access to their intranets. For example, authorized buyers could dial into a portion of a company’s intranet from the public internet to obtain information about the cost and features of its products.
Extranet are essentially useful for linking organizations with customers or business partners while many are being used for providing product availability, pricing and shipment data.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)
The internet has become the most important e-mail system in the world because it connects so many people from allover the world. Private individuals typically use internet e-mail facilities to keep in touch with friends. Organizations use it to facilitate communications between employees and between offices, to communicate with suppliers, and keep in touch with outside world.
Researchers use this facility to share ideas, information, even documents. E-mail over the internet has also made possible many collaborative research and writing projects even though the participants are thousand of miles apart. With proper software, the user will find it easy to attach document and files when sending a message to someone or to broadcast a message to a predefined group.
The figure illustrates the components of an internet e-mail address.
Domain name
godwinoye@starrygold.edu.ng
Individual or Host Function Location
Organization name Computer
//
Terminology
The Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc. In contrast, the Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is one of the services accessible via the Internet, along with various others including e-mail, file sharing, online gaming and others described below.
Internet and the workplace
The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and Web applications.
The Internet viewed on mobile devices
The Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere there is a cellular network supporting that device's technology.
Within the limitations imposed by the small screen and other limited facilities of such a pocket-sized device, all the services of the Internet, including email and web browsing, may be available in this way. Service providers may restrict the range of these services and charges for data access may be significant, compared to home usage.
Relevant Of Internet
According to Oladejo M. O (2007)
1. It serves as a world library to obtain useful information
2. Cheap medium of advertisement
3. It provides means for education
4. Quick and fast means for education
5. Medium for political campaign
6. Its provides job opportunities for applicants
7. Potential research base for students and academics.
8. It provides basics for distance leaning
9. On-line banking services is possible
10. Its provides basis for on-line shopping
11. On-line payment is made possible
12. It’s a source of entertainment
13. Quick and fast means of business transactions
Web Browser
A browser is a computer program that resides on your computer enabling you to use the computer to view world wide web (www) documents and access the internet taking advantage of text formatting, hypertext, hypertext links, images, sound, motion, and other features. Netscape and internet explorer are currently the leading “graphical browsers” in the world.
Examples of Web Browsers
- Netscape
- Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Opera
- Mac web etc.
Searching the web for Information
Information can be searched for through:
1. Search directories, or
2. Search engines.
Search Directories: This is a website organized by topic and sub-topics i.e searching may be by topics or key words examples are:
- http://www.starrygold.com
- http://www.webdirectory.com
- http://www.yahoo.com
- http://www.exite.com
Search Engine: is a website designed to perform search on the net for a topic. It usually comes from a broader pool. Common search engines: e.g
- http://www.google.com
- http://www.altavisa.digital.com
- http://www.iycos.com
- http://www.whowhere.com
- Bebcrawer.com
- Mama.com
- Ask.com
Services available on the Internet
- Electronic mail
- Browsing: to view information and documents in the Internet
- New group: people with common interest can share idea and knowledge
- File Transfer Protocol: to download information from the desired sources
- www links to all documents and the internet
- Teleconferencing: to hold talk between people at different locations.
- Gopher space: it gives access to body of information like www.
- Telnet: allows logging into remote computer and using it as if our machine is directly connected to it so as to search directories and running other programs.
Getting connected to the Internet
The followings requirements must be met before user can get facility on the internet
(Oladejo 2007)
1. A computer system
2. A modem or other communication links
3. Communication software
4. An account with Internet service provide with adequate bandwidth and infrastructure.
Common uses of the Internet (According to Wikipedia online resources)
- The World Wide Web
- Remote access
- File sharing
- Collaboration
- Voice telephony (VoIP)
- Streaming media
- Political organization and censorship
- Leisure activities
- Complex architecture
- Marketing
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it can be important to distinguish between Internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of both the sender's and the recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even tampered with by third parties, if anyone considers it important enough. Purely internal or intranet mail systems, where the information never leaves the corporate or organization's network, are much more secure, although in any organization there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and occasionally accessing, the e-mail of other employees not addressed to them.
The World Wide Web
Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (or just the Web) interchangeably, but, as discussed above, the two terms are not synonymous.
The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked documents, images and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the web servers and other machines that store originals, and cached copies, of these resources to deliver them as required using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). HTTP is only one of the communication protocols used on the Internet.
Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data.
Software products that can access the resources of the Web are correctly termed user agents. In normal use, web browsers, such as Internet Explorer and Firefox, access web pages and allow users to navigate from one to another via hyperlinks. Web documents may contain almost any combination of computer data including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.
Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.
Using the Web, it is also easier than ever before for individuals and organisations to publish ideas and information to an extremely large audience. Anyone can find ways to publish a web page, a blog or build a website for very little initial cost. Publishing and maintaining large, professional websites full of attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however.
Many individuals and some companies and groups use "web logs" or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organisations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.
Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and
Remote access
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.
This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice.
An office worker away from his desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives the worker complete access to all of his or her normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while away from the office.
This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into its employees' homes; this has been the source of some notable security breaches, but also provides security for the workers.
Collaboration
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and test, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place, even among niche interests. An example of this is the free software movement in software development, which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly known as Netscape Communicator and StarOffice). Films such as Zeitgeist, Loose Change and Endgame have had extensive coverage on the Internet, while being virtually ignored in the mainstream media.
Internet "chat", whether in the form of IRC "chat rooms" or channels, or via instant messaging systems, allow colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way when working at their computers during the day. Messages can be sent and viewed even more quickly and conveniently than via e-mail. Extension to these systems may allow files to be exchanged, "whiteboard" drawings to be shared as well as voice and video contact between team members.
Version control systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents without either accidentally overwriting each other's work or having members wait until they get "sent" documents to be able to add their thoughts and changes.
File sharing
A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks.
In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed—hopefully fully encrypted—across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests.
These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.
Internet collaboration technology enables business and project teams to share documents, calendars and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing.
Streaming media
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet "feeds" of their live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialized, technical webcasts. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—material is first downloaded in full and then may be played back on a computer or shifted to a digital audio player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material on a worldwide basis.
Voice telephony (VoIP)
VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the instant messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL.
Thus, VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP modems are now available that eliminate the need for a PC.
Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.
Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Traditional phones are line-powered and operate during a power failure; VoIP does not do so without a backup power source for the electronics.
Most VoIP providers offer unlimited national calling, but the direction in VoIP is clearly toward global coverage with unlimited minutes for a low monthly fee.
VoIP has also become increasingly popular within the gaming world, as a form of communication between players. Popular gaming VoIP clients include Ventrilo and Teamspeak, and there are others available also. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 also offer VoIP chat features.
Social impact
The Internet has made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access.
Social networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace have created a new form of socialization and interaction. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of items to their personal pages, to indicate common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find a large circle of existing acquaintances, especially if a site allows users to utilize their real names, and to allow communication among large existing groups of people.
Sites like meetup.com exist to allow wider announcement of groups which may exist mainly for face-to-face meetings, but which may have a variety of minor interactions over their group's site at meetup.org, or other similar sites.
Political organization and censorship
In democratic societies, the Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States became famous for its ability to generate donations via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a whole new method of organizing, in order to carry out Internet activism.
Some governments, such as those of Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet, especially political and religious content. This is accomplished through software that filters domains and content so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention.
Leisure activities
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas.
Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over copyright laws than others.
Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.
People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites like MySpace, Facebook and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment.
The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access their files, folders, and settings via the Internet.
Complex architecture
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system". The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity. Further adding to the complexity of the Internet is the ability of more than one computer to use the Internet through only one node, thus creating the possibility for a very deep and hierarchal sub-network that can theoretically be extended infinitely (disregarding the programmatic limitations of the IPv4 protocol). However, since principles of this architecture date back to the 1960s, it might not be a solution best suited to modern needs, and thus the possibility of developing alternative structures is currently being looked into.
Marketing
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost advertising and commerce through the Internet, also known as e-commerce. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast number of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized shopping—for example; a person can order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people more so than any other advertising medium.
Examples of personalized marketing include online communities such as MySpace, Friendster, Orkut, Facebook and others which thousands of Internet users join to advertise themselves and make friends online. Many of these users are young teens and adolescents ranging from 13 to 25 years old. In turn, when they advertise themselves they advertise interests and hobbies, which online marketing companies can use as information as to what those users will purchase online, and advertise their own companies' products to those users.
Possible weaknesses of the Interest
- High cost of installation
- Connectivity problems by internet service providers
- High rate of data piracy
- Loss of information confidentiality
- Lack of originality of information since user can only print from the net
- High level of cyber crime of defrauding unsuspecting public on the net
- Display of some moral hazard like entertainment where blue films that promote sexual vices can be easily down loaded.
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
TO BANKING
ELECTRONIC BANKING
DEFINITION
Electronic banking, also known as electronics fund transfer (EFT), uses computer and electronics technology as a substitute for checks and other paper transactions. ETFS are initiated through devices like cards or codes that let you, or those you authorized, access your account. Many financial institutions use ATM or debit cards and Personal Identifications Numbers (PINS) for this purpose. Some use other forms of debit cards such as those that require, at the most, your signature or a scan.
E-Banking (electronics banking), to many customers, means 24-hour access to cash through an automated teller machine (ATM) or Direct Deposit of paychecks into checking or savings accounts. But electronics banking now involves many different types of transaction.
E-BANKING SERVICES
EFT/E-banking offers several services that consumer many find practical:
1. Automated Teller Machine or 24-hour Tellers are electronic terminals that let you bank almost any time. To withdraw cash, make deposits, or transfer funds between accounts, you generally insert an ATM card and enter your PIN. Some financial institutions and ATM owners charge a fee, particularly to consumers who don’t have account with them or on transaction at remote locations. Generally ATMS tell you they charge a fee and its amount on or at the terminal screen before you complete the transaction.
2. Direct Deposit, especially as it operates in the USA, lets you authorize specific deposits, such as paychecks and Social Security Checks, to your account on a regular basis. You also may pre-authorize direct withdrawals so that recurring bills such as insurance premiums, mortgages, and utility bills, are paid automatically.
3. Pay-By-Phone Systems let you call your financial institution with instructions to pay certain bills or to transfer funds between accounts. You must have an agreement with the institution to make such transfer.
4. Personal Computer Banking lets you handle many banking transactions via your personal computer. For instance, you may use your computer to view your account balance, request transfer between accounts and pay bills electronically.
5. Point-of-Sale Transfer let you pay for purchase with a debit card which also may be your ATM card. The process is fast and easy, a debit card purchase transfers money-fairly quickly-from your bank account to the store’s account.
6. Electronic Check Conversion converts paper check into an electronics payment at the point of sale or elsewhere, such as when a company receives your check in the mail. In a store, when you give your check to a store cashier, the check is processed through an electronic system that captures your banking information and the amount of the check. Once the check is processed, you’re asked to sign a receipt of authorizing the merchant to present the checks to your bank electronically and deposit the funds into the merchant’s account. You get a receipt of the electronics transaction for your records. When your check has been processed and returned to you by the merchant, it should be voided or marked by the merchant so that it can’t be used again.
E-COMMERCE
Electronics Commerce is the process of doing business electronically. It involves the automation of a variety of business-to-business and business-to-consumer transactions through reliable and secure connections, especially the internet.
Electronic Commerce (EC) is a composite of technologies, processed and business strategies that foster the instant exchange of information within and between organizations. EC strengthens relationships with buyers, makes it easier to attract new customers, improves (and in some cases reinvents) customer responsiveness, and opens new markets on a global scale.
Electronics commerce is a range of application that extend the core business activities of the enterprises into a virtual electronics community that is shared with customers, suppliers, business partners, employees, and prospects.
USING COMPUTER FOR COMMUNICATION
Face to face has been the original means of communicating between persons. There was a time also when a town crier was relied upon to inform persons in a village about anything, and a gun was fired across a valley to pass information from one village to the other. But through time, humanity developed, and so telephones for person to person communication, the radio and TV also came for the purposes of mass communication. While the telephone allowed two-way discussions between persons, radio and TV was meant to be new way – to the listener. The letter postage service also came, then telegram, telex and fax systems as means of communication between persons. For many years, the world was contented with these methods.
But computers soon arrived and became very cheap. Many ways of using it were developed to take advantage of its speed of operation. Data communication has been one key area that came about as a result of the marriage of computers with communication. The fruitful union meant that when two or more computers are connected on the telephone network, whatever is contained (stored) in each machine can be sent in a matter of seconds to the others. Distance is immaterial, once the location in which each computer is located is connected by phone.
Furthermore, the telephone was initially meant for voice contact with the other person, but now virtually anything- a letter, a book, photograph, X-ray films etc. can be transmitted by computers over the telecommunication network. And while the normal telephone is one to one, the data in one machine can be sent simultaneously to unlimited number of others.
Benefits of data communication through the use of computers are;
1. E-Mail services
2. Bulletin Board Service (BBS) and
3. Internet
4. Telepresence, Telegal, Teleducation, Telmedine, Telemarketing,
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